♦ 


ungjtiulr  frast  7|3  from  Washington 


A MANUAL 


OF 


ENGLISH 


FOR  THE  USE 


HISTORY, 

OF  SCHOOLS. 


EDWARD  M.  LANCASTER, 

PRINCIPAL  OF  THE  STOUGHTON  SCHOOL,  BOSTON,  MASS. 


A.  S.  BARNES  & COMPANY, 
NEW  YORK,  CHICAGO,  AND  NEW  ORLEANS. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1877,  by 

EDWARD  M.  LANCASTER, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


y^'n  i > 


PREFACE. 


Z/-2 

/jZ.7. 

\%'\V\ 


This  " Manual  of  English  History  ” has  been  prepared 
to  meet  the  wants  of  those  schools  whose  limited  time 
forbids  an  extended  course  of  study.  The  mere  com- 
mittal to  memory  of  the  names  of  kings  and  isolated 
events,  however  important,  is  in  no  proper  sense  a 
study  of  history . There  should  be  enough  of  explana- 
tion and  detail  to  make  intelligible  the  relation  which 
one  event  bears  to  another,  that  is,  the  cause  and  effect 
of  events.  The  author  has  sought,  therefore,  in  the 
preparation  of  this  Manual,  to  arrange,  in  the  briefest 
manner  consistent  with  clearness,  the  essential  facts  of 
English  History. 

The  most  valuable  lesson  to  be  learned  by  American 
youth  from  the  history  of  the  Mother  Country,  is  the 
worth  of  liberty,  civil  and  religious.  The  struggle  be- 
tween the  king  and  the  people,  the  one  striving  to  main- 
tain the  Royal  Prerogative  and  the  other  to  secure  their 
Natural  Rights,  was  happily  over  long  before  we  be- 
came an  independent  nation.  The  principles,  estab- 
lished by  the  Revolution  of  1688,  stand  an  enduring 
monument  of  the  triumph  of  the  people.  Our  consti- 
tution is  but  the  matured  product  of  that  long  and 
painful  struggle,  and  a just  conception  of  the  one  can 
be  gained  only  by  a careful  study  of  the  other. 

If  the  youth  of  our  land,  however  few  in  number, 
shall  be  aided,  by  the  use  of  this  brief  work,  in  form- 


IV 


PREFACE. 


ing  a just  estimate  of  the  free  institutions  under  which 
they  live,  the  highest  object  of  the  author  will  have 
been  accomplished. 

Among  the  many  works  consulted  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  Manual,  special  acknowledgments  arc 
due  to  " Knight’s  Popular  History  of  England,”  val- 
uable for  its  fulness  of  detail ; and  " Green’s  Short 
History  of  the  English  People,”  which,  in  the  masterly 
comprehension  and  vivid  expression  of  the  spirit  of 
English  history,  stands  absolutely  without  a peer. 

The  author  remembers  thankfully  the  assistance  of 
numerous  friends.  He  takes  great  pleasure  in  men- 
tioning the  name  of  his  esteemed  friend,  Henry  B. 
Miner,  Master  of  the  Dorchester-Everett  School  of  this 
city,  to  whom  he  is  especially  indebted  for  many  valu- 
able suggestions. 


Boston,  Feb.  22,  1877. 


E.  M.  X. 


KINGS  OF  ENGLAND 


SAXON  LINE. 


HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER. 


Egbert 

Ethel  wolf 

Ethel  bald 

EMielbert 

Ethelred  I 

Alfred 

Edward  the  Elder.. 

Athelstan  

Edmund  I 

Etlvcd 

Edwy 

Edgar 

Edward  the  Martyr 

Ethelred  ii 

Edmund  II  

827—  833—11 
83S — 857—20 
857—  800 — 3 
860 — 866—  6 
866—  871—  5 
871—  901—30 
901—  925—24 
925—  941—16 
941—  948—  7 
918—  955—  7 
955—  959—  4 
950—  975—16 
975—  978—  3 
978—1016—33 
1016-1017—  1 

DANISH  LINE. 

Canute  I 

1017-1036-19 

Harold  I....  

1036—1039—  3 

Canute  ii 

1039—1041—  2 

Edward— Saxon .... 

1041-10:5-24 

Harold  II— Saxon.. 

1065-1066—  1 

NORMAN 

LINE. 

William  i 

1066 — 1087 — 21 

William  II*. 

1087 — 1 100—1  i 

Henry  I 

1100—1135-35 

Stephen ' 

1135—1154—19 

FLANTAGENET  FAMILY. 

nenry  II 

1154-1189-35 

Richard  i 

1189-1199—10 

John 

1199—1216—17 

Henry  in 

1216-1272—56 

Edward  I 

1272— 13*7— 35 

Edward  II 

1307—1327—20 

Edward  hi 

1327—1377—50 

Richard  II 

1377 — 1399 — 22 

Henry  iv 

1399—1413—14 

Henry  v 

1413-1422—  9 

Henry  VI 

1422—1461—39 

HOUSE  OF  TORK. 


Edward  IV. 
Edward  v. 
Richard  ill 


1461-1483-22 
1483.  74  days 
14S3— 1485—  *2 


TUDOR  FAMILY. 


Henry  vii. 
Henry  viil. 
Edward  vi 

Mary 

Elizabeth.. 


1485 — 15C9 — 24 
1 >U9 — 154 1 — 38 
1517 — 155:3 — 6 
1553 — 1558—  5 
1558— 1603-44 


STUART  FA^riLY. 


James  i 

Charles  I 

Commonwealth. 

Charles  ii 

James  II 

William  & Mary, 
Anne 


1603-1625-22 
1625—1649—24 
1649— 1660— 1 1 
16  50— 1685— 25 
1685-1688-  3 
1689—1702—13 
1702-1714-12 


HOUSE  OF  BRUNSWICK. 


George  i«... 
George  II.. 
George  ill.. 
George  iv. 
William  iv. 
Victoria.... 


1714-1727-13 
1727-1760—33 
1760— 1820— 60 
1820— 1830— 1C 
1830-1837—  7 
1637— 


(5) 


Fifteenth  S Fourteenth  IThirteenth]  Twelfth  R Eleventh 

Century-  I Century.  | Century.  ■ Century.  ■ Century, 


NAMES  OF  KINGS  AND  LEADING  TOPICS 


Roman  Conquest  and  Occupation  — the  first  four  centuries. 

Saxon  Conquest  and  Heptarchy  — the  next  four  centuries. 

Reign  of  Saxon  Kings  and  Danish  Invasions  — the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries. 
Danish  Conquest  and  Reign  of  Danish  and  Saxon  Kings  — the  eleventh 
century. 


NAMES  OP 
KINGS. 


LEADING  TOPICS. 


William  I. — Norman  Rule  — Saxon  Rebellion  — The  Feudal  System. 

William  II.  — Beginning  of  the  Crusades  — The  System  of  Chivalry. 

Henry  I.  — First  Charter  of  Liberties  — Union  of  Saxon  and  Norman  Families  — 
Robert, Duke  of  Normandy. 

Stephen  — Usurpation  — Civil  War  and  Anarchy  — Compromise  with  Henry. 


Henry  II.  — Plantagenet  Rule—  Establishment  of  Order  — Constitutions  of 
Clarendon  and  Thomas  & Becket  — Courts  of  Justice. 

Richard  I.  — The  Knight  and  Crusader  — Usurpation  of  John. 

John  — Contest  with  the  Pope  — Rebellion  of  Barons  — Magna  Charta . 

Henry  III.  — Rebellion  of  Barons  — Simon  de  Montfort  — House  of  Commons 
— Prince  Edward  and  the  Holy  Land.  9 

Edward  I.  — Conquest  of  Wales  — War  with  Scotland  — Arbitrary  Taxation 
Forbidden. 

Edward  II.  — War  with  Scotland  — Rebellion  — Deposition  of  Edward. 

Edward  III. —War  with  Scotland  — War  with  France  for  the  Crown— Chiv- 
alry and  the  Black  Prince. 

Richard  II. — Wat  Tyler’s  Rebellion  — Chaucer  — Wickliffe  and  the  First 
Reformation. 


Henry  IV.  — House  of  Lancaster  — Rebellions  — Persecution  of  Reformers. 
Henry  V.  — Reformation  Suppressed  — Conquest  of  France  — The  Navy. 
Henry  VI.  — Joan  of  Arc  and  the  Loss  of  France  — Jack  Cade’s  Rebellion  ~ 
Wars  of  the  Roses. 

Edward  IV.  — House  of  York — Wars  of  the  Roses  — William  Caxton  and  (he 
Art  of  Printing. 

Edward  V.  — Usurpation  of  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester 

Richard  III.  — Wars  of  the  Roses  ended  with  the  death  of  Richard  at  Bosworth. 


Nineteenth  I Eighteenth  I Seventeenth  I Sixteenth 

Century.  I Century.  I Century.  I Centurv. 


NAMES  OF  KINGS  AND  LEADING  TOPICS 


vii 


NAMES  OF 
KINGS 


LEADING  TOPICS. 


Henry  VII.  — Tudor  Family  — Union  of  York  and  Lancaster  — Simnel  and 
Warbeck  — Discovery  of  America—  Revival  of  Learning. 

Henry  VIII.  — Catherine  of  Aragon  and  Cardinal  Wolscy  — Progress  of  Learn- 
ing — Separation  from  Rome  and  the  Reformation. 

Edward  VI.  — Reformation  Continued  — Duke  of  Northumberland  and  Lady 
Jane  Grey. 

Mary  — Reconciliation  with  Rome  and  Persecution  of  Protestants  — Philip  of 
Spain  — Calais. 

Elizabeth  — Church  of  England  — Mary,  Queen  of  Scots  — Philip  and  the 
Armada  — Maritime  Supremacy  — Great  Names. 

James  I.  — Stuart  Family  — Union  of  Crowns  — Gunpowder  Plot  — Transla- 
tion of  the  Bible  — Settlement  of  America. 

Charles  I. — Illegal  Taxation  and  CivitWai — Petition  of  Right  — Trial  and 
Execution  of  Charles. 

The  Commonwealth.  — The  Monarchy  Abolished  and  Commonwealth  Established — 
Cromwell  and  the  Protectorate. 

Charles  II.  — The  Restoration  — Plague  and  Fire  — Habeas  Corpus  Act  — 
Popish  and  Rye  House  Plots. 

James  II. — Monmouth’s  Rebellion — Attempt  to  Restore  Catholicism  — The 
Revolution. 

William  and  Mary.  — Rebellion  in  Ireland  — War  with  France  and  Peace  of 
Ryswick  — Bill  of  Rights  — English  Constitution. 

Anne.  — War  of  Spanish  Succession  and  Peace  of  Utrecht  — Union  of  England 
and  Scotland  — The  Augustan  Age  of  English  Literature. 

George  I.  — House  of  Brunswick  — The  Elder  Pretender  — The  South  Sea 
Scheme. 

George  II.  — Walpole  and  his  Policy  — War  of  Austrian  Succession  and  Peace 
of  Aix-ia-Chapelle  — The  Younger  Pretender  — Seven  Years’  War- 
William  Pitt— India. 

Gsoi^e  III.  — Peace  of  Paris  Canada  — American  Revolution  — French 

Revolution  — Second  War  with  the  United  States. 

George  IV.  — Independence  of  Greece  — Catholic  Emancipation  Act. 

William  IV.  — Reform  Bill  of  1832  — Abolition  of  Slavery. 

Victoria.  — Repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws  — the  Navigation  Acts  — and  the  Laws 
against  Jews.  Passage  of  Laws  disestablishing  the  Irish  Church  — 
extending  the  Elective  Franchise  — substituting  the  Ballot  for  open 
voting  — and  founding  a System  of  Public  Schools.  Wars  with  China 
and  the  Opening  of  Ports  — the  Crimean  War  — the  Sepoy  Rebellion  — 
Civil  War  in  the  United  States  and  the  Alabama  Claims. 


GENEALOGICAL  TABLE, 


SAXON  LINE. 


Egbert. 

Ethelwolf. 


Etbelbald. 
DANISH  LINE. 
SWEYN. 

Canute  I. 


Ethelbert. 


Harold. 


Canute  II. 


NORMAN  LINE. 
William  the  Conqueror . 


I 

Robert . 


Ethelred  i.  Alfred. 

Edward  the  Elder, 
I 

Athelstan.  Edmund.  Edred, 


Edwy. 


Edgar. 

L 

I 


Edward  the  Martyr.  Ethelred  II. 


Edmund  Ironside . 
Edward  the  Outlaw . 

I 

Margaret . 


Edward 
the  Confessor. 

Earl  Godwin. 

I 

Harold  II. 


William  II.  Henry  I.  Adela. 

I 

Stephen. 


Matilda. 


Richard  I. 
Ceeur  de  Lion. 


Matilda.  Union  of  Saxon  and  Norman  Families. 
Henry  II. 

1 

I _ I 

Geoffrey.  John. 


Arthur.  Eleanor. 

Murdered  by  John, 


Henry  III. 
Edward  I. 


Edward  II. 

I 

EDWARD  III. 


GENEALOGICAL  TABLE 


IX 


Edward  III. 


Edward , the 

Lionel , Duke 

John  of  Gaunt , 

Edmund , 

Black  Prince, 

of  Clarence . 

Duke  of  Lancaster.  Duke  of  Yurt, 

1 

i 

Philippa . 

1 1 

I 

Richard  II. 

1 

Henry  IV.  Earl  of 

Diehard , 

Mortimer. 

| Somerset. 

Earl  of 

1 

Henry  V.  j 

Cambridge. 

Edmund 

1 

Anne. 

Henry  VI.  j 

1 ' 

Mortimer , 

1 

Duke  of 

1 

Earl  of  March. 

1 Union  of  second  and  Somerset. 

Pickard. 

fourth  branches.  | 

1 

' 

Edward  IV. 

Richard  III. 

i 

Margaret. 

Edward  V. 

j 

Diehard. 

Elizabeth. 

Henry  VII. 

Union  of  York 

The  Smothered.  Princes. 

and  Lancaster. 

Henry  VIII.  Marg  aret 

1 

Mary. 

married 

| 

| 

| 

James  IV 

i 

I 

dARY, 

Elizabeth, 

Edward  VI.,  of  Scotland. 

Frances. 

Daughter  of 

Daughter  of 

Son  of  | 

r 1 ^ 

Catherine 

Anne  Boleyn . 

Jane  James  V. 

Jane  Grey. 

Of  Aragon. 

Seymour.  1 

Mary, 

Queen  of  Scots. 

James  I. 
1 

Charles  I. 

1 

Elizabeth . 

Charles  II. 

James  II.  Mary 

Sophia 

I 

married 

married 

-I 

Prince  of  Nassau. 

Elector  of 

Ma 

i i > 

ry.  Anne.  / James . 

\ William  III. 

Hanover. 

1 

1 | 

1 1 

George  I. 

V Charles 

. / 

1 

The  Pretenders. 

George  II. 

Union  of  Stuart  and  Nassau. 

1 Prince  of  Wales . 

1 1 ™ 

(jEORGE  in. 

George  IV. 

William  IV. 

Duke  of  Kent, 

Victoria. 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 


The  British  Empire  includes  the  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  and  all  its  colonies  and  dependencies,  having  a 
population  of  more  than  250,000,000,  and  an  area  of  more  than 
8,300,000  square  miles. 

EUROPEAN. 

The  British  Islands,  the  Channel  Islands,  Heligoland,  Malta, 
Gozo,  and  Gibraltar. 

ASIATIC. 

British  India,  Ceylon,  Aden,  Malacca,  Singapore,  Prince  of 
Wales’  Island,  Hong-Kong,  Sarawak,  Labuan,  and  Cyprus. 

AUSTRALIAN. 

Australia,  Tasmania,  N^'folk  Islands,  New  Zealand,  Chat* 
ham  Islands,  and  the  Fiji  Islands. 

AFRICAN. 

Cape  Colony,  Natal,  Gambia  and  the  Gold  Coast,  Sierra 
Leone;  the  single  Islands  — Ascension,  Mauritius,  and  St. 
Helena ; and  the  groups  — Seychelles,  Amirante,  and  the 
Chagos. 

NORTH  AMERICAN. 

British  America  including  Nova  Scotia  and  Cape  Breton 
Island,  New  Brunswick,  Prince  Edward’s  Island,  Quebec,  On- 
tario, Manitoba,  British  Columbia,  the  Northwest  Territory, 
and  Newfoundland,  all,  except  the  last  named,  being  united 
under  the  title  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada ; Balize,  and  the 
Bermudas. 

SOUTH  AMERICAN. 

British  Guiana,  and  the  Falkland  Islands. 

WEST  INDIAN. 

Jamaica,  the  Bahamas,  Trinidad,  and  most  c f the  Lesser  An- 
tilles. 


(10) 


CHAPTER  I. 


The  Britons.  We  know  little  of  the  early  history 
of  Britain.  From  rude  relics  found  in  the  soil,  we 
conclude  that  the  island  was  once  inhabited  by  a race 
of  savages  who  disappeared  before  a superior  people 
that,  at  some  unknown  period,  crossed  from  the  Conti- 
nent of  Europe.  These  Celtic  invaders  were  found  in 
sole  possession  when  the  Romans  first  visited  the  island, 
about  half  a century  before  Christ.  They  were  a bar- 
barous people,  divided  into  numerous  tribes,  whose 
principal  employment  was  war.  Their  weapons  were 
spears  and.  broadswords,  with  blades  of  bronze,  and 
they  also  used  wicker  shields  covered  with  skins,  and 
chariots  armed  with  projecting  scythes,  in  which,  drawn 
by  trained  horses,  they  rode  at  full  speed  into  the  very 
midst  of  their  foes.  Their  homes  were  huts  and  caves  in 
the  forests  which,  at  that  time , covered  nearly  all  the  land. 
They  subsisted  upon  their  flocks  and  herds,  and  the 
products  of  the  chase,  and  wore  little  clothing,  painting 
their  bodies  blue,  and  covering  them  with  hideous  tat- 
tooes to  make  themselves  terrible  to  their  enemies  in 
battle.  But  those  occupying  the  southwestern  corner 
of  the  island  were  superior  to  the  rest,  having  been 
visited,  from  time  immemorial,  by  other  nations,  for  the 
tin  found  in  the  mines  of  that  section.  Even  the  mer- 
chants of  ancient  Tyre  and  Sidon,  occasionally  sent 
ships  to  barter  Phoenician  wares  for  British  tin. 


12 


THE  BRITONS. 


Druidism.  The  Britons  professed  a religion  called 
Druidism.  They  worshiped  one  Supreme  Being,  of 
whom  they  had  no  just  conception,  and  numerous  in- 
ferior deities,  to  whom  they  offered  human  sacrifices. 
The  heavenly  bodies  occupied  a prominent  place  among 
these  inferior  deities.  They  believed  in  a future  state 
of  existence,  in  which  rewards  and  punishments  were 
meted  out  according  as  men’s  conduct  had  been  good  or 
bad  in  this  life.  Much  of  the  power  and  all  the 
learning  were  confined  to  the  priests,  called 
Druids.  They  made  the  laws,  administered 
justice,  and  were  the  sole  instructors  of  the  young. 
Nothing  was  committed  to  writing,  and  education 
consisted  in  receiving  from  the  lips  of  the  Druids 
and  committing  to  memory  a great  number  of  verses 
on  Geography,  Astronomy,  and  Religion.  The  priests 
performed  their  mystic  rites  in  temples,  each  formed  of  a 
circular  row  of  huge  stones  standing  upright  with  the 
altar  in  the  centre,  open  to  the  heavens  above, 
and  located  in  groves  of  their  sacred  tree,  the  oak. 
Remains  of  these  temples  still  exist  in  various  places, 
the  most  notable  at  Stonehenge  on  Salisbury  Plain. 
Their  most  holy  place  was  the  Island  of  Mona,  now 
Anglesea,  just  across  the  Menai  Strait.  Their  most 
solemn  festival  occurred  on  the  sixth  day  of  the  moon 
nearest  the  tenth  of  March,  their  New  Year’s  day, 
when  the  chief  Druid,  clothed  in  white  robes,  with 
a golden  knife  cut  the  sacred  mistletoe  from  the  oak  to 
which  it  clung.  There  were  three  other  festivals  of 
special  interest  to  the  English  people,  since  to  them 
may  be  traced  the  festivities  of  May-day,  Mid-summer- 


THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST* 


13 


eve,  and  Harvest-koine,  celebrating  respectively  the 
sowing  of  the  seed,  the  ripening  of  the  crops,  and  the 
gathering  of  the  harvests. 

First  Soman  Invasion.  Britain,  lying  to  the  west 
of  the  continent,  and  separated  from  it  by  quite  an  ex- 
panse of  water,  was  too  insignificant  to  excite  either  en- 
mity or  cupidity,  and  long  escaped  the  notice  of  Rome, 
the  "Mistress  of  the  World.”  It  was  only  when  the  tide 
of  Roman  conquest  had  reached  the  western  shore  of 
Europe,  that  the  scheme  of  its  addition  to  the  Empire 
was  first  conceived.  Julius  Caesar,  having  nearly  com- 
pleted the  subjugation  of  the  Gauls,  crossed  the  Channel 
with  two  legions,  and  landed  just  beyond  the  cliffs  of 
Dover,  B.C.  55.  The  Britons,  warned  of  the  purpose  of 
Caesar,  had  gathered  in  large  numbers  to  oppose  his  land- 
ing. Though  they  w^ere  driven  back,  and  repeatedly 
beaten,  so  stubborn  were  they,  that  Caesar  did  not  ven- 
ture far  from  the  coast,  and  was  glad  to  accept  their  of- 
fers of  peace  and  return  to  Gaul.  But  the  next  year  he 
returned  with  a much  larger  force,  five  legions  or  thirty 
thousand  foot  soldiers,  and  two  thousand  horse.  Having 
conquered  the  country  for  some  distance  beyond  the 
Thames,  compelling  the  chiefs  to  pay  tribute  and  give 
hostages,  Caesar  again  withdrew  from  British  soil. 

Second  Roman  Invasion.  Occupied  with  weightier 
matters,  the  Romans  soon  practically  forgot  their  distant 
and  worthless  conquest,  and  the  Britons  were  left  for 
nearly  a century  to  take  care  of  themselves.  During 
this  period,  a growing  trade  and  a better  acquaintance 
with  their  neighbors  on  the  continent,  had  done  some- 
thing towards  their  civilization,  attracting  the  attention 


14 


THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST. 


of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  who  began,  iu  the  year  of 
our  Lord  43,  a second  and  more  difficult  conquest. 

Caractacus.  Caractacus,  the  most  important  of 
the  chiefs  at  that  time,  putting  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  inland  tribes,  for  eight  years  held  the  Romans  at 
bay,  when  he  was  captured  and  taken  to  Rome  to 
grace  the  triumph  of  his  captor.  "Is  it  possible 
that  a people  possessed  of  so  much  magnificence 
at  home  could  covet  my  humble  cottage  in 
Britain,”  exclaimed  the  wondering  barbarian  as  he 
gazed  on  the  glories  of  Rome  ! His  kingly  bearing 
won  the  respect  of  the  Emperor,  who  restored  him  to 
liberty,  and  this  is  the  last  we  hear  of  the  noble  Briton. 

Slaughter  of  the  Druids.  The  Druids  possessed 
almost  unlimited  power  over  the  people,  and  this 
power  they  had  used  to  the  utmost,  to  arouse  them 
to  bitter  hostility  to  Roman  authority.  Suetonius, 
the  Roman  general  and  governor,  resolving  to  strike 
a decisive  blow,  in  the  year  61,  crossed  the  strait 
of  Menai  and  landed  on  the  sacred  shore  of  Mona. 
For  a moment  even  Roman  soldiers  faltered,  as  they 
listened  to  the  shrieks  and  imprecations  of  frantic  priests 
and  priestesses,  and  beheld  the  host  of  painted  war- 
riors gathered  to  defend  their  altars ; then  pressing 
resolutely  forwra^d,  this  stronghold  of  British  supersti- 
tion and  British  plower  was  soon  in  their  possession,  and 
Druidism  received  a fatal  blow  in  the  slaughter  of  its 
priests,  and  the  destruction  of  its  groves  and  temples. 

Boadicea.  During  the  absence  of  Suetonius  a fresh 
insurrection  broke  out  under  Boadicea,  widow  of  the  King 
of  the  Icenians.  Stung  to  madness  by  shameful  abuse, 


THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST. 


15 


when  protesting  against  the  seizure  of  all  her  wealth  by 
Roman  officials,  she  went  from  tribe  to  tribe  exciting 
the  warriors  to  phrensy  with  the  story  of  her  wrongs. 
Under  her  lead  they  suddenly  fell  upon  the  Roman 
settlements,  and  seventy  thousand  soldiers  and  citizens 
were  put  to  the  sword.  Suetonius  hurried  back  from 
Mona  to  wreak  a terrible  vengeance  on  the  Britons  in 
arms.  In  a great  battle  fought  near  London,  eighty 
thousand  warriors  sealed  with  their  blood  their  devo- 
tion to  their  country,  and  the  spirited  queen,  unwilling 
to  survive  the  slaughter  of  her  people  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  her  hopes,  put  an  end  to  her  own  life. 

The  Roman  Conquest.  But  the  Britons  were  still 
unsubdued,  and  it  remained  for  Agricola  (who  became 
Governor  in  the  year  78),  by  the  practice  of  justice  and 
humanity  as  well  as  soldierly  skill,  to  reconcile  them  to 
Roman  authority.  Under  the  firm  but  liberal  policy  of 
Agricola  and  his  successors , the  Britons  rapidly  improved . 
They  gave  up  their  heathenish  rites  and  savage  customs, 
and  adopted  the  manners,  dress,  and,  to  some  extent, 
the  language  of  the  Romans.  They  became  peaceful 
and  industrious.  Wide  stretches  of  gloomy  forests 
gave  place  to  fields  of  waving  grain  ; and  the  mines  of 
tin, lead,  and  iron  began  to  be  worked  in  earnest.  Their 
surplus  products  found  a ready  market  abroad,  giving 
rise  to  a moderate  but  increasing  commerce.  The  con- 
struction by  the  Romans  of  a system  of  public  roads 
not  only  facilitated  the  transportation  of  troops  to 
needed  points,  but  hastened  the  development  of  the 
country  and  the  civilization  of  its  inhabitants.  A 
Wall  of  solid  stone,  twelve  feet  high  and  eight  feet  thick, 


16 


THE  SAXON  CONQUEST. 


running  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne  to  the  Solway  Firth, 
a distance  of  sixty-eight  miles,  was  built  by  the  Emperor 
Severus  to  protect  the  Britons  from  the  incursions  of 
the  Scots  and  Piets,  wild  and  warlike  tribes  occupying 
the  highlands  of  Caledonia.  Rome  continued  in  un- 
disturbed possession  of  Britain  until  the  year  420,  when 
she  recalled  her  soldiers  to  repel  the  Goths,  who  were 
pouring  from  their  German  homes  into  Italy  in  vast 
numbers,  threatening  even  Rome  itself. 

Tlie  Saxon  Conquest.  The  Romans  had  no  sooner 
left  the  island  than  the  Scots  and  Piets,  boldly  crossing 
the  wall  of  Severus,  renewed  their  ravages  in  the 
northern  districts.  The  Britons,  weakened  by  long 
subjection  to  Rome,  were  unable  to  defend  themselves  ; 
and,  after  a vain  appeal  to  the  Emperor  Honorius  for 
help,  called  to  their  aid  the  Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jutes. 

These  were  fierce  people  inhabiting  the  peninsula  of 
Jutland  and  the  country  around  the  mouths  of  the  Elbe 
and  Weser  rivers,  who,  roaming  about  the  waters  of  the 
North  and  Baltic  seas  in  their  pirate  boats,  had  long 
been  the  scourge  of  all  the  adjoining  coasts.  They  en- 
tered Britain  under  the  command  of  their  brave  chief- 
tains, Hengist  and  Horsa,  in  the  year  449,  and  quickly 
compelled  the  northern  marauders  to  retire  to  their 
native  highlands. 

But,  attracted  by  the  mildness  of  the  climate  and  the 
beauty  and  fertility  of  the  country,  and  finding,  in  con- 
nection with  the  promised  reward,  a pretext  for  a quar- 
rel, they  soon  turned  their  arms  against  the  Britons 
themselves.  The  latter,  compelled  to  fight  in  defence 
of  their  homes,  gradually  recovered  their  ancient  valor. 
For  a century  and  a half  the  struggle  for  mastery  in 


THE  SAXON  CONQUEST. 


17 


the  island  went  on,  fresh  hordes  of  Germans  pouring 
in,  from  time  to  time,  to  the  help  of  their  countrymen. 

The  battle  of  Chester,  fought  in  the  year  607,  estab- 
ished,  beyond  a doubt,  the  supremacy  of  the  invaders. 
The  districts  still  occupied  by  the  natives  being  severed 
one  from  another,  could  no  longer  act  in  concert,  and 
the  struggle,  though  lingering,  ceased  to  have  a national 
character.  The  brave  but  hapless  Britons,  beaten  on 
all  sides,  and  pursued  with  fire  and  sword,  at  last  found 
a safe  retreat  among  the  mountain  fastnesses  of  Wales 
and  Cornwall.  There,  animated  by  a burning  love 
of  liberty,  they  continued  in  almost  unbroken  war  for 
six  hundred  yearfe,  defying  the  whole  power  of  Eng- 
land to  subdue,  them;  and  there,  their  descendants, 
the  Welsh,  live  to-day,  a hardy,  vigorous  race,  and  at 
one  with  the  English,  who  have  long  since  shared  with 
them  the  blessings  of  a common  country. 

During  the  Roman  occupation,  Christianity  had  sup- 
planted the  native  religion.  The  Latin  language,  too, 
had  gradually  come  into  use,  especially  among  the  upper 
classes  and  in  the  larger  towns.  The  entire  disappear- 
ance of  Christianity,  and  both  the  Latin  and  native  lan- 
guages, attests  the  thoroughness  of  the  German  or  An- 
glo-Saxon conquest.  A few  slaves  held  for  the  pleasure 
or  profit  of  the  conquerors  were  all  that  were  left  of  the 
native  population. 

King  Arthur.  Of  the  many  heroic  Britons,  who 
struggled  against  the  German  conquest,  the  most  fa- 
mous, whose  name  has  come  down  to  us,  is  Arthur,  chief 
of  one  of  the  tribes  in  the  West.  But  so  much  of  fable 
has  been  woven  into  the  story  of  this  patriot  Briton  and 
his  sixty  " Knights  of  the  Round  Table,”  that  we  can 


18 


THE  SAXON  CONQUEST. 


only  say  with  confidence,  that  such  a prince  lived  and 
bravely  fought  the  enemies  of  his  country. 

The  Heptarchy.  The  conquerors  gradually  estab- 
lished separate  kingdoms  as  they  won  new  territory, 
each  having  its  independent  king.  Seven  of  these, 
from  their  greater  prominence,  have  been  called,  in 
history,  the  Heptarchy.*  After  the  Saxons  had  be- 
come firmly  established  in  their  new  homes,  and  the 
sharpness  of  the  struggle  with  the  Britons  had  begun 
to  decline,  jealousy  and  ambition  for  pre-eminence 
involved  them  in  wars  with  each  other.  Constant 
changes,  therefore,  took  place  in  the  number  and 
boundaries  of  the  kingdoms.  The  stronger  gradually 
absorbed  the  weaker,  until  Wessex,  under  its  vigorous 
king  Egbert,  brought  them  all  under  one  government 
in  the  year  827. 

Introduction  of  Christianity.  Britain  first  became 
Christian  under  Rome,  but  how  or  when  is  not  known. 
Possibly,  a Christian  soldier  in  a Roman  legion  told  the 
story  of  the  Cross  at  a native  fireside,  or  some  name- 
less but  devoted  priest,  going  on  a mission  to  heathen- 
Britain,  achieved  a conquest  under  the  banners  of  the 
Cross,  more  glorious  than  that  of  Roman  arms.  St.  Al- 
ban is  recorded  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  as  early 
as  the  year  304.  With  the  advent  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 

* Kent,  or  Canfcia,  was  founded  by  Hengist,in  457.  South  Saxony,  or  Sus- 
sex, by  Ella,  in  490.  West  Saxony,  or  Wessex,  by  Cerdic,  in  519.  East  Sax- 
ony, or  Essex,  by  Ercewin,  in  527.  Northumberland  (North  of  the  Humber.) 
by  Ida,  in  547.  East  Anglia,  comprising  Norfolk  (North  folks  ) and  Suffolk 
(South  folks  ) by  Uflfa,  in  575.  Mercia  (Marchmen,  or  people  on  the  march  or 
frontier  ) by  Cridda,  in  582. 


THE  SAXON  CONQUEST. 


19 


the  Christian  religion  disappeared,  and,  for  a century 
and  a half,  Britain  remained  under  a paganism  more 
debasing  than  that  of  the  Druids. 

Christianity  was  introduced,  a second  time,  by  Augus- 
tine* and  a band  of  forty  monks  from  Rome,  in  the  year 
597.  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  who  married  Bertha, 
a Christian  lady,  and  daughter  of  the  king  of  Paris, 
was  the  first  convert.  His  people  followed  his  exam- 
ple and  accepted  Christianity.  Augustine  became 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  head  of  the  church  of 
England,  and  his  successors  have  retained  their  supe- 
riority ever  since.  Ethelbert’s  daughter  Ethelburh, 
married  Edwin,  king  of  Northumbria,  and  through  her 
influence  and  that  of  her  priest  Paulinus,  Edwin  and 
his  people  were  converted.  The  other  kingdoms 
became  Christian  during  the  next  century. 

Anglo-Saxon  Religion.  The  principal  deity  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons  was  Woden,  the  God  of  war,  from  whom 
all  their  royal  families  claimed  descent;  the  next  in  rank 
being  Thor,  or  Thunder,  the  God  of  storms.  Each  day 
of  the  week  was  dedicated  to  a particular  deity,  from 
whom  it  received  its  najne  — a name  it  still  continues 


♦The  venerable  Bede,  our  principal  authority  for  early  English  history, 
tells  how  Christianity  was  now  introduced  into  Britain.  Gregory,  a priest,  one 
day  saw  in  the  market-place  of  Rome,  some  very  beautiful  boys  for  sale,  and 
asked  who  they  were  and  whence  they  came.  He  was  told  they  were  heathen 
boys  from  the  Isle  of  Britain.  He  then  asked  the  name  of  their  nation. 
“Angles  ” was  the  answer.  “Angles,”  said  Gregory,  “ they  have  the  faces  of 
Angels , and  they  ought  to  be  made  fellow-heirs  of  the  Angels  in  Heaven.  But 
of  what  tribe  of  Angles  are  they  ?”  “Of  Deira ,”  was  the  reply.  “ Deira! ” 
said  Gregory,  “ then  they  must  be  delivered  from  the  wrath  of  God.  And  what 
is  the  name  of  their  king?”  “ASlla.”  “uBlla'then  Alleluia  shall  be  sung  in 
his  land.”  Sometime  afterwards  Gregory  became  pope  and  sent  Augustinci 
and  forty  other  monks  to  convert  the  English. 


20 


THE  SAXON  CONQUEST. 


to  bear.*  Like  barbarous  tribes  in  general,  making  the 
future  existence  a realization  of  their  highest  ideal  of 
the  present  life,  they  filled  their  Valhalla  or  Heaven 
with  scenes  of  war,  Avhere  happy  Saxons  would  live  for- 
ever, occupying  the  days  in  the  slaughter  of  their  ene- 
mies, and  the  nights  in  wild  carousals  of  victory. 

Anglo-Saxon  Government.  The  king  was  assisted  in 
the  government  by  a great  council,  called  Witenagemot, 
or  "Assembly  of  the  Wise,”  composed  of  the  great  no- 
bles, the  Ealdormen  or  Earls,  and,  after  the  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity,  Bishops  and  Abbots.  This  council 
met  regularly  at  Christmas,  Easter  and  Whitsuntide, 
and  on  special  occasions  when  summoned.  At  the  death 
of  the  king  it  assembled  to  elect  his  successor,  who 
was  taken  from  the  royal  family,  but  was  not  always  the 
next  in  line.  Besides  the  Earls , who  acted  as  judges 
and  rulers  in  their  districts,  there  was  an  inferior  class 
of  nobles,  called  Thanes , men  who  had  risen  to  nobility 
by  personal  attendance  on  the  king.  The  Churls  were 
freemen  of  the  middle  and  lower  classes,  the  lowest 
class  of  all  being  the  Serfs , or  slaves,  who  composed 
about  two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants. 


* Sunday,  (Sun’s  day),  or  day  for  the  worship  of  the  sun.  Monday 
(Moon’s  day  ) or  day  for  the  worship  of  the  moon.  Tuesday  (Tiw’s  day) 
the  day  of  the  Dark  God  Tiw,  to  meet  whom  was  death.  Wednesday 
(Woden’s  day)  the  day  of  Woden,  the  War  God.  Thursday  (Thor’s  day)  the 
day  of  Thor,  the  God  of  storms.  Friday  (Frea’s  day)  the  day  of  Frea,  the 
goddess  of  peace  and  fruitfulness.  Saturday  (Saturn’s  day)  the  day  of  Sat- 
urn, a God  borrowed  from  Roman  Mythology. 


CHAPTER  II. 


The  Saxon  Line,  827  to  1013  — 186  years. 


EGBERT. 


ATHELSTAN. 

EDMUND  I. 

EDRED. 

EDWY. 

EDGAR. 

EDWARD  THE  MARTYR. 
ETHELRED  II. 


ETHELWOLF. 
ETHELBALD. 
ETHELBERT. 
ETHELRED  I. 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT. 
EDWARD  THE  ELDER. 


Egbert  — 827  to  837  — 10  years.  Saxon. 

The  Danish  Invasions.  Egbert  called  the  country 
England  from  the  Angles,  the  most  powerful  of  the 
three  tribes.  This  is  generally  regarded  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  English  monarchy.  No  sooner  were 
the  different  kingdoms  united  under  one  government 
and  at  peace  among  themselves,  than  a new  danger 
appeared  from  without.  Inroads  began  to  be  made  by 
the  Danes,  a piratical  people  of  Denmark,  who,  descend- 
ing upon  the  eastern  coast  during  the  summer,  would 
load  their  boats  with  plunder,  and  retire  for  the  winter 
to  their  strongholds  on  the  shores  of  the  North  and 
Baltic  Seas.  They  came  year  after  year  in  ever  increas- 
ing numbers,  until  at  last,  from  pirate  bands  in  search 
of  plunder,  they  grew  into  invading  armies  bent  on 
conquest.  They  planted  themselves  at  various  points 
along  the  coast,  and  waged  perpetual  wrar  with  the 
English  in  the  interior. 


22 


EGBERT. 


They  even  colonized  the  coast  of  Ireland,  forcing 
the  inhabitants  back  to  their  native  bogs.  From  the 
reign  of  Egbert  to  that  of  Ethelred  the  Unready,  a 
period  of  nearly  two  hundred  years,  the  struggle 
between  Saxon  and  Dane  went  on,  ending  as  we  shall 
see  a little  later,  in  the  establishment  of  Danish  rule. 

Egbert  was  succeeded  by  Ethelwolf,  a good  and  pious 
king,  who  was  followed  by  his  four  sons  in  succession ; 
Ethelbald,  who  died  lamented  by  his  people;  Ethel- 
bert,  a vicious  and  unworthy  king;  Ethelred  I,  a brave 
soldier,  under  whom  Alfred  learned  the  art  of  war,  and 
whom  he  succeeded. 

Alfred  the  Great,  871  to  901  — 30  years.  Saxon. 

War  with  the  Danes.  During  the  early  part  of  his 
reign,  Alfred  was  engaged  in  constant  warfare  with  the 
Danes.  Defeated  in  battle  after  battle  by  the  overwhelm- 
ing number  of  his  foes,  he  was  compelled,  for  a time,  to 
hide  in  a secluded  spot  in  the  swamps  and  forests  of 
Somersetshire,  still  known  as  Athelney,  or  Prince’s 
Island.*  Wishing  to  learn  the  strength  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  Danish  camp,  he  presented  himself  before 
Guthrum,  the  Danish  king,  disguised  as  a minstrel. 


* Alfred,  while  a refugee,  found  temporary  shelter  in  a herdsman’s  cottage. 
The  herdsman’s  wife  one  day  set  him  to  watch  some  cakes  that  were  baking 
over  the  fire;  but  Alfred,  intent  on  mending  his  bow,  let  the  cakes  burn,  and 
was  sharply  reproved  by  the  indignant  woman  when  she  returned.  The 
whole  story  may  be  a mere  legend  or  come  from  an  ancient  ballad.  There 
are  two  old  Latin  verses  that  quaintly  express  the  good  woman’s  alleged 
reproof 

“ Urere  quos  cernis  panes  gyrare  moraris , 

Quum  nimium  gaudes  hos  manducare  calentes 

44  There,  don’t  you  see  the  cakes  on  fire  ? Then  wherefore  turn  them  not  ? 

You  are  glad  enough  to  eat  them  when  they  are  piping  hot.” 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT. 


23 


For  several  days  lie  amused  the  unsuspicious  Danes 
with  harp  and  song,  when,  having  gained  the  desired 
information,  he  disappeared  as  mysteriously  as  he  had 
come.  Putting  himself  at  the  head  of  his  trusted  fol- 
lowers, he  made  a sudden  attack  on  the  Danish  camp 
and  gained  a signal  victory. 

By  treaty,  Guthrum  and  his  followers  received  bap- 
tism, withdrew  from  Wessex,  Alfred’s  native  kingdom, 
and  settled  in  the  eastern  districts  as  nominal  vassals 
of  the  English  king.  Peace  was  broken  after  an  inter- 
val of  ten  years  by  the  arrival  of  Hastings,  the  famous 
sea-king,  with  a great  fleet.  Alfred  once  more  took 
the  field,  and  by  his  skill  and  genius  the  Danish  fleet 
was  captured,  its  army  routed,  and  Hastings  compelled 
to  take  refuge  in  France. 

Alfred’s  Government.  Peace  being  restored,  Alfred 
devoted  the  few  remaining  years  of  his  life  to  the  bet- 
ter organization  of  his  kingdom  and  the  elevation  of 
his  people.  He  invited  wise  men  of  other  nations  to 
his  court,  and  founded  schools  of  learning,  among  them 
the  University  of  Oxford.  He  translated  into  the 
English  tongue,  portions  of  the  Scriptures,  the  history 
of  Bede,  the  early  English  chronicler,  and  Latin  works 
of  merit,  and  thus  gave  an  impulse  to  learning.  He 
compiled  a code  of  laws,  chiefly  from  the  systems  of  his 
predecessors,  containing  principles  of  the  greatest 
value  in  modern  jurisprudence.  He  organized  a mili- 
tia, and  divided  the  country  into  counties,  hundreds,  and 
tens,  after  the  old  Saxon  system,  making  each  section 
responsible  for  the  good  behavior  of  its  inhabitants.  So 
complete  and  successful  was  his  system  of  government, 
that  violence  and  disorder  disappeared  from  the  land. 


24 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT. 


The  boast  is  handed  down  to  us  that  gold  and  jewels, 
left  unguarded  by  the  roadside,  would  remain  untouched 
by  dwellers  or  passers-by.  As  a soldier,  statesman, 
and  scholar,  Alfred  has  never  been  surpassed  by  any 
English  sovereign. 

Alfred’s  Successors.  He  was  succeeded,  in  order, 
by  Edward  the  Elder,  *who  first  assumed  the  title  of 
King  of  England, — Athelstan,  a good  and  valiant  king, 
who  caused  the  Bible  to  be  translated  into  Anglo-Saxon, 
and  a copy  placed  in  every  church  in  the  kingdom, — 
Edmund,  who  was  stabbed  at  his  own  table  by  the  ban- 
ished robber,  Leolf, — Edwy,  wdiose  romantic  marriage 
with  his  beautiful  cousin  Elgiva  brought  upon  both  the 
vengeance  of  Dunstan  the  Abbot,  Elgiva  dying  by  vio^ 
lence,  and  Edwy  with  grief, — Edgar  the  proud  but 
peaceable, — Edward  the  Martyr,  young  and  promising, 
who  was  killed  at  the  gate  of  Corfe  Castle,  by  order  of 
his  step-mother, — and  then  by  Ethelred  the  Unready. 

Massacre  of  Danes.  Ethelred,  afraid  to  fight  the 
Danes  in  an  open  and  manly  way,  purchased  peace  by 
promising  to  pay  them  an  annual  tribute,  called  Dane- 
gelt,  raised  by  a tax  on  land,  the  first  on  record  in 
England.  This  tax  proving  very  unpopular,  Ethelred 
planned  a massacre  of  all  the  Danes  in  the  kingdom  as 
the  easiest  way  of  getting  rid  of  both  Danegelt  and 
Danes. 

The  Danish  Conquest.  This  massacre  took  place  on 
the  Festival  of  St.  Brice,  in  the  year  1002,  and  so 
enraged  Sweyn,  king  of  Denmark,  whose  sister,  a 
hostage  of  peace,  was  among  the  slain,  that  he  assem- 
bled a large  army,  transported  it  to  the  English  coast, 
and  commenced  the  work  of  vengeance.  Through  and 

O O 


THE  DANISH  CONQUEST. 


25 


through  the  kingdom  of  Wessex  went  the  furious  Dane, 
" lighting  his  war  beacons  as  he  went,”  leaving  behind 
him  only  the  bodies  of  the  dead  and  the  ashes  of  their 
dwellings.  Ethel  red  lied  to  France,  and  Sweyn 
became  king  of  England,  establishing  the  Danish  line 
in  the  year  1013.  Sweyn  died  before  coronation,  and 
for  a short  time,  the  Saxon  line  was  restored  in  the 
person  of  Ethelred,  and  then  in  that  of  his  son  Edmund, 
called  Ironside.  Between  the  latter  and  Canute,  son  of 
Sweyn,  there  was  a short  and  furious  war  to  decide 
which  should  be  king,  ending  in  the  division  of  the 
country  between  them.  The  death  of  Edmund  soon 
after,  led  to  the  submission  of  all  England  to  the  rule  of 
Canute. 

Comparison  between  Saxon  and  Danish  Conquests. 

A brief  comparison  should  be  made  between  the  Saxon 
and  Danish  conquests.  The  Saxons  and  Danes  were 
of  the  same  Teutonic  stock,  and  in  their  German  homes 
spoke  the  same  language  with  dialectical  differences. 
They  worshiped  the  same  heathen  gods,  and  had  essen- 
tially the  same  laws  and  customs.  The  Saxons  had, 
long  before  their  invasion  of  Britain,  roamed  about  the 
waters  of  the  German  ocean  in  fleets  of  black  pirate- 
boats,  swarming  up  all  the  rivers  and  scouring  all  the 
coasts  in  search  of  plunder.  It  was  while  they  were  on 
just  such  a piratical  raid,  that  the  Britons  first  obtained 
their  help  against  the  Scots  and  Piets, 

So  clouds  of  Danish  pirates  hovered  about  the  Eng- 
lish coast  before  the  Danish  invasion,  plundering  their 
somewhat  civilized  and  christianized  Saxon  kindred. 
The  Saxons  were  a century  and  a half  in  com- 
pleting their  conquest,  the  Danes  somewhat  longer  in 


2 6 


TIIE  DANISH  CONQUEST. 


effecting  theirs.  There  was  the  same  savage  ferocity 
in  battle,  and  the  same  ruthless  slaughter  of  the  con- 
quered. Tile  Danes  regarded  the  Saxons  as  renegades 
from  their  ancient  faith,  and  so  it  was,  in  either  case, 
a war  of  heathenism  on  Christianity. 

But  the  final  results  were  widely  different.  There 
was  nothing  in  common  between  Briton  and  Saxon, 
and  the  war  they  waged  was,  on  the  part  of  the  latter, 
one  of  extermination.  But  there  was  much  in  com- 
mon between  Saxon  and  Dane,  and  they  could  easily 
assimilate.  The  barbarism  of  the  conquering  Dane 
yielded  to  the  civilization  of  the  conquered  Saxon, 
so  that,  in  process  of  time,  the  former  became,  as  it 
were,  transformed  into  the  latter. 


CHAPTER  III. 


Danish  Line,  1017  to  1042  — 25  years. 

CANUTE  THE  GEEAT.  j HAEDICANUTE. 

HAEOLD. 

Canute  the  Great,  1017  to  1030  — 19  years.  Danish. 

The  Reign  of  Canute.  Canute  •well  deserved  to  be 
called  the  Great,  lie  enlarged  his  kingdom,  then  com- 
prising England  and  Denmark,  by  bringing  under  his 
sway  Norway  and  Sweden.  But  his  chief  claim  to 
greatness  rests  not  on  his  exploits  in  war,  but  his 
achievements  in  peace.  Coming  to  Eugland  from  his 
native  Denmark  a fierce  and  blood-thirsty  savage,  he 
became  in  time  a good,  wise,  and  great  king,  * impar- 
tial in  his  sway  over  Saxon  and  Dane.  Peace  and  the 
welcome  sounds  of  industry  soon  took  the  place  of  war 
and  its  horrid  din.  By  wise  and  popular  laws,  rigidly 
but  impartially  executed,  he  united  and  harmonized  the 
discordant  kingdoms,  and  healed  the  animosities  of  the 


*IIis  courtiers,  wishing  to  flatter  him  by  exalting  his  power,  once  told  him 
that  he  was  lord  alike  of  sea  aud  land,  and  would  be  obeyed  by  both.  Wishing 
to  show  them  how  foolish  as  well  as  impious  these  praises  were,  he  gave  orders 
that  his  throne  should  be  carried  to  the  sea  shore  at  Southampton,  and  sat 
down  upon  it  while  the  tide  was  coming  in.  41  Now,”  said  he,  “ O sea,  I am  thy 
lord;  come  no  nearer,  presume  not  to  wet  my  feetl  n The  waves,  of  course, 
instead  of  attending  to  him,  rolled  on,  till  they  flowed  around  his  throne  and 
washed  over  his  feet.  Turning  to  his  attendants,  he  bads  them  remember  that 
there  is  only  One  who  can  say  to  the  deep,  ‘‘So  far  shalt  thou  go,  and  no  further; 
and  here  shall  thy  proud  waves  be  stayed.”  lie  afterwards  hung  up  Lis 
crown  over  the  altar  in  Winchester  Cathedral,  and  never  wore  it  again. 

[Yo.vge. 


(*7) 


28 


CANUTE  TIIE  GREAT. 


different  races,  laying,  for  the  first  time,  the  founda- 
tions of  national  unity  and  greatness. 

Canute  and  the  Christian  Church.  Canute’s  treat- 
ment of  the  Christian  church  is  worthy  of  notice.  The 
barbarous  Danes  had  been  merciless  in  the  destruction 
of  churches  and  monasteries,  and  in  the  slaughter  of 
their  inmates ; and,  in  consequence,  all  the  powers  of 
the  church  had  been  arrayed  against  them.  Canute, 
on  coming  to  power,  instead  of  taking  vengeance  on 
the  Christian  church,  yielded  his  heart  -to  its  holy  faith, 
and  became  its  friend  and  patron.  He  re-built  and  re- 
endowed the  religious  houses  which  he  and  his  father  had 
burned,  and  even  protected  Christian  pilgrims  journey- 
ing to  Rome,  from  the  robbers  of  the  Alps.  On  the 
other  hand,  with  a keen  sense  of  justice,  he  protected 
his  people  from  the  exorbitant  demands  of  the  church 
itself.  He  died  in  1036,  lamented  by  all  his  people, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Harold,  called  Harefoot, 
whose  only  claim  to  fame  was  his  swiftness  in  running ; 
and  then  by  his  second  son  Hardicanute,  or  Canute  II., 
who  died  of  intemperance  after  a reign  of  two  years. 
The  people,  disgusted  with  their  later  Danish  rulers, 
then  called  to  the  throne  Edward  the  Confessor,  brother 
of  Edmund  Ironside,  and  son  of  Ethelred  II.,  thus 
restoring  the  Saxon  line. 

Edward  the  Confessor,  1041  to  1066.  — 25  Years. 

Edward  had  opent  all  his  early  years  in  exile  in  Nor- 
mandy, and  thus  naturally  had  become  Norman  in  his 
tastes  and  habits.  On  coming  to  the  English  throne 
he  surrounded  himself  with  Norman  companions,  whom 
he  appointed  to  the  principal  offices  of  church  and 


EDWARD  THE  CONFESSOR. 


29 


state,  greatly  to  the  discontent  of  the  English  people. 
But  he  had  the  wisdom  to  appoint,  as  his  principal 
adviser,  Godwin,  Earl  of  Wessex,  an  Englishman,  and 
the  ablest  statesman  in  the  kingdom.  Edward  being 
in  feeble  health,  Godwin  became  the  virtual  ruler  of 
-England,  and  by  his  skill  and  wisdom  kept  peace  be- 
tween the  jealous  English  and  the  haughty  Norman. 
Once  exiled,  he  was  soon  recalled;  and  at  his  death, 
which  occurred  shortly  after  his  return,  his  son  Harold, 
who  had  inherited  all  his  father’s  greatness,  took  his 
place  at  the  head  of  the  affairs  of  state. 

Character  of  Edward.  Edward  was  a wise  and  pious 
king,  and  caused  England  to  be  governed  by  just  and 
equal  laws.  For  generations  afterwards  the  people, 
when  ground  down  by  tyranny,  would  look  back  with 
longings  to  the  " good  laws  of  Edward.”  His  time  was 
chiefly  spent  in  deeds  of  charity  and  in  the  exercises 
of  religion,  and  he  attained  to  a purity  and  sanctity  of 
character  that,  about  a hundred  years  after  his  death, 
placed  his  name  among  those  of  the  Saints  in  the 
calendar  of  the  church,  and  that  have  hallowed  his 
memory,  even  to  this  day.  Edward  was  popularly 
believed  to  have  the  miraculous  power  to  cure  the  scrof- 
ula, or  "king’s  evil,”  by  a touch, — a strange  supersti- 
tion in  connection  with  the  sovereign  of  England  that 
found  credence  among  the  masses  of  the  people,  even 
down  to  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne.  Edward  had  mar- 
ried a daughter  of  Godwin,  but  died  without  heirs  in 
the  year  1066.  On  his  death-bed  he  named  Harold  as 
his  successor,  and  the  Witan  the  same  day  elected  him 
as  king. 

William,  Duke  of  Normandy.  William,  Duke  of 


30 


EDWARD  THE  CONFESSOR. 


Normandy,  had  been  planning  for  years  to  take  the 
English  throne  at  the  death  of  Edward.  lie  affirmed 
that  Edward,  with  whom  he  had  been  educated  at  his 
father’s  court,  had  even  promised  him  the  kingdom, 
and  that  Harold,  when  once  wrecked  on  the  coast  of 
Normandy  and  thrown  into  William’s  power,  had  sworn 
to  support  his  claim.  However  this  may  be,  on  hearing 
of  Harold’s  election,  William,  "speechless  with  rage,” 
at  once  commenced  the  most  vigorous  preparations  to 
enforce  his  claim.  He  built  a great  fleet,  and  gathered 
about  him  an  army  of  sixty  thousand  knights,  the 
flower  of  the  chivalry  of  Normandy ; and  having  first 
obtained  the  Pope’s  sanction  to  the  enterprise, 
crossed  the  channel,  and  landed  on  the  coast  of  England, 
the  last  of  September. 

Battle  of  Hastings,  A,  D.  1066.  William’s  merci- 
less ravages  of  the  adjoining  country  brought  Harold 
to  battle  at  Senlac,*  near  Hastings,  about  the  middle  of 
October.  After  a desperate  struggle  of  nine  hours’ 
duration,  just  at  dusk,  Harold  fell,  pierced  to  the  brain 
with  an  arrow,  and  his  broken  and  panic-stricken  army 
fled  away  during  the  night.  William  entered  London  in 
triumph,  two  months  later,  and  was  crowned,  on 
Christmas  day,  at  Westminster.  This  is  called,  in 
history,  the  Conquest. 

* In  commemoration  of  his  victory,  William  built  a Monastery  called  Cattle 
Abbey,  on  the  very  spot  where  Harold’s  standard  had  been  planted.  Although 
this  has  long  since  passed  away,  its  successor,  in  ruins,  reminds  the  traveller 
of  the  famous  battle  of  Hastings. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


Norman  Line,  1066  to  1154  — 88  Years. 

WILLIAM  I.,  the  Conqueror.  I HENRY  I..  Beauclerk. 

WILLIAM  II.,  Rufus.  | STEPHEn. 

William  the  Conqueror  — 1066  to  1087.  — 21  Tears. 

Rolf,  the  Dane.  William  was  descended  from  Rolf, 
a Danish  pirate,  who,  in  912,  just  after  the  time  of  Al- 
lred the  Great,  had  planted  himself  with  his  pirate  crew, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Seine.  The  king  of  France, 
being  unable  to  dislodge  him,  finally,  by  treaty,  gave 
him  his  daughter  in  marriage  and  a title  to  Normandy, 
in  return  for  which  Rolf  agreed  to  receive  baptism  and 
acknowledge  himself  a vassal  of  France.  In  process 
of  time,  the  same  change  befell  the  Danes  in  France 
that  had  befallen  them  in  England;  they  were  absorbed 
by  the  more  civilized  people  among  whom  they  settled. 
As  in  England  the  Dane  became  an  Englishman,  so  in 
France  he  became  a Frenchman. 

Revolt  of  the  English.  Soon  after  William’s  acces- 
sion to  power,  and  during  his  temporary  absence  in 
Normandy,  there  was  a wide-spread  revolt  of  the 
English.  The  signal  for  the  rising  was  the  appearance 
on  the  coast,  of  a Danish  fleet  designed  to  restore 
Danish  authority  to  the  island.  With  a heavy  bribe, 
the  crafty  William  induced  the  Danish  commanders  to 

(31) 


32 


WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR. 


abandon  their  purpose  and  return  to  Denmark.  He 
then  turned  upon  the  rebels  in  arms  with  a ferocity  lie 
only  could  show.  He  ravaged  the  sea-board  so  that  no 
Dane  should  find  either  foothold  or  plunder  in  future, 
and  laid  waste  with  fire  and  sword  the  old  district  of 
Dcira,  between  the  Humber  and  the  Tecs,  the  source 
and  centre  of  the  rebellion.  So  complete  was  the  de- 
vastation, that,  for  the  space  of  sixty  miles  north  of 
York,  the  whole  district  remained  for  half  a century 
without  an  inhabitant,  a barren  waste,  and  marked  only 
by  blackened  ruins.  One  hundred  thousand  human 
beings,  who  had  lied  to  the  woods  at  William’s  coming, 
crept  back  to  the  ashes  of  their  homes,  only  to  die  of 
starvation.  Although  it  was  mid-winter  when  the 
cruel  work  was  done,  the  ruthless  king  started  at  once 
for  the  West,  where  the  revolt  was  still  formidable. 
Through  an  unbroken  wilderness,  covered  with  drifts 
of  snow,  and  crossed  by  swollen  streams,  the  starving 
army  toiled  painfully  on,  with  the  tireless  king  ever 
at  the  head.  Chester*  was  reached  at  last,  and  with 
its  fall  the  rebellion  virtually  came  to  an  end. 

Confiscation  of  English  Estates.  Then  commenced, 
under  the  direction  of  the  revengeful  king,  a wholesale 
confiscation  of  rebel  estates.  These  were  distributed 

* Chester  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  as  well  as  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in 
England.  It  shows  more  plainly  than  any  other  the  marks  of  the  Roman 
occupation.  It  is  the  only  town  in  England  that  has  maintained  its  walls  in 
tlifir  original  form,  the  foundations  of  which  were  laid  by  the  Romans  them- 
selres.  Its  long  and  interesting  history  is  indicated  by  the  iollowing  inscrip- 
tions, made  from  time  to  time  upon  its  walls: 

A.  D.  01.  Walls  built  by  Romans. 

73.  Marius,  King  of  the  Britons,  extended  the  walls. 

607.  The  Britons  defeated  by  the  Saxons. 

900.  Rebuilt  by  daughter  of  Alfred  the  Great. 

1399.  Ilenry  of  Lancaster  mustered  his  troops  under  the  walls. 

1615.  The  Parliamentary  forces  made  a breach  in  the  walls. 


WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR. 


33 


among  the  Norman  knights  and  nobles  who  had  fought 
around  William’s  standard,  while  their  former  Saxon 
owners  either  found  refuge  in  foreign  lands,  or,  form- 
ing in  hostile  bands,  waged  a desultory  warfare  with 
their  Norman  conquerors.  Hereward,  a Saxon  noble, 
retired  to  the  isle  of  Ely,  where,  protected  by  almost 
' impassable  swamps,  he  long  defied  the  Norman  power. 
But  William,  building  a causeway  across  the  swamps, 
finally  forced  the  valiant  Saxon  to  surrender. 

The  Feudal  System  Established.  The  conquest  of 
England  now  being  complete,  William  turned  his  at- 
tention to  the  organization  of  the  government,  with  a 
view  to  its  security  in  the  future.  Normans  were  put 
into  all  places  of  power  and  trust.  The  military  power 
of  the  government  was  based  on  the  Feudal  system 
that  already  prevailed  in  Spain,  France,  and  Germany. 
Under  this  system,  the  great  nobles  were  granted  al- 
most unlimited  power  over  the  persons  and  property  of 
their  tenants,  on  certain  conditions,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  was,  that  they  should  come  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  king  with  all  their  retainers  in  time  of  war. 
These  nobles,  generally  living  in  strongly  fortified  cas- 
tles, and  constantly  surrounded  by  devoted  bodies  of 
men-at-arms,  thus  became  petty  sovereigns,  spending 
their  time  in  the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  or  in  making 
war  on  each  other,  and  sometimes  on  the  king  himself. 
William  erected  the  Feudal  system  in  England  as  a 
bulwark  to  the  throne  ; and  such  it  was  as  against  the 
conquered  English.  But  when  the  spirit  of  disaffec- 
tion crept  into  the  Norman  nobility,  thus  made  powerful 
and  independent,  the  Feudal  system  became  its  chief 
danger. 


34 


WILLIAM  TIIE  CONQUEROR. 


The  Doomsday  Book.  For  the  better  organization 
of  the  kingdom,  and  the  more  certain  collection  of  its 
revenues,  he  ordered  a great  survey,  the  results  of 
which  were  embodied  in  the  "Doomsday  Book,”  show- 
ing the  ownership,  extent,  and  productions  of  all  the 
estates  in  the  kingdom.  From  this  register  the  crown 
dues  were  carefully  calculated  and  rigidly  collected. 

The  Curfew  Bell.  William  established  the  curfew 
(fire-covering)  bell.  This  w^as  rung  from  every  church- 
tower  and  monastery  in  England,  at  sunset  in  summer, 
and  at  eight  o’clock  in  winter,  as  a signal  for  the  peo- 
ple to  cover  the  fires  on  thb  hearth,  and  retire  to  rest. 
The  law  of  the  curfew  had  long  prevailed  in  various 
parts  of  Europe  as  a safeguard  against  conflagrations, 
which  were  frequent  and  extensive  in  the  wood-built 
towns. 

The  Norman  Language.  After  the  Saxon  rebellion, 
Normans  had  been  put  into  all  responsible  places,  both 
of  church  and  state.  Of  necessity,  therefore,  all  the 
business  of  the  government  and  courts  of  justice,  the 
services  of  the  church,  except  such  as  regularly  em- 
ployed Latin,  and  the  exercises  of  the  schools,  were 
conducted  in  the  Norman  language.  Norman  thus 
came  largely  into  use,  even  among  English  people ; 
but  the  English  masses  still  continued  to  talk  in  their 
Anglo-Saxon  tongue.  It  is  said  that  William  tried, 
though  in  vain,  to  learn  the  Anglo-Saxon  language, 
that  he  might  be  the  better  qualified  to  govern  his 
whole  people. 

Character  of  William  the  Conqueror.  Reserved, 
haughty,  severe  in  his  rule,  and  ruthless  in  his 
revenge,  " stark  to  baron  or  rebel,”  but  " mild  to  them 


WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR. 


35 


that  loved  God,”  he  inspired  a mingled  sense  of  respect 
and  awe  in  all  about  him.  This  sense  was  heightened, 
no  doubt,  by  a consciousness  of  his  great  physical 
strength,  no  ordinary  man  being  able  to  swing  his  bat- 
tle-axe or  bend  his  bow.  There  was  a grandeur  about 
the  Conqueror  that  belongs  to  no  other  English  king, 
as  manifest  in  his  fearless  humanity  as  in  his  dauntless 
ferocity.  If,  with  a ferocity  that  finds  few  parallels 
in  all  history,  he  blotted  out  rebellious  towns,  and 
brought  the  silence  of  death  upon  offending  dis- 
tricts, with  a humanity  in  striking  contrast  with  the 
spirit  of  the  age,  he  formally  abolished  capital  punish- 
ment, and  but  one  person  suffered  death  for  crime  dur- 
ing his  whole  reign. 

To  gratify  his  love  of  solitude  and  his  fondness  for 
the  chase,  he  laid  waste  an  extensive  tract  in  Hamp- 
shire, reaching  from  Winchester  to  the  sea,  driving  out 
its  inhabitants  and  burning  their  dwellings  and  churches. 
But  he  also  abolished  the  slave  trade  that  had  long  been 
a source  of  wealth  to  the  merchants  of  Bristol,  and 
became  the  friend  and  patron  of  the  Jews,  then  a hated 
race,  allowing  them  to  build  dwellings  and  synagogues 
in  all  the  principal  towns. 

He  was  a true  Catholic,  and  strengthened  the  church 
by  the  establishment  of  ecclesiastical  courts,  after- 
wards, in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  the  source  of  so  much 
trouble;  but  he  bluntly  refused  to  obey  the  command  of 
the  pope  to  do  fealty  for  his  realm.  If  he  removed 
English  prelates  and  abbots,  he  required  of  their 
Norman  successors  the  most  exemplary  lives,  and 
instantly  dismissed  those  found  unworthy. 


36 


WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR 


Although  lie  could  not  brook  opposition,  and  was 
like  a raging  lion  to  all  who  withstood  him,  there 
was  one  man,  Anselm,  the  good  abbot  of  Bee,  in 
whose  presence  lie  always  became  gentle  and  patient. 

William’s  end  was  characteristic.  lie  died  on  an 
errand  of  vengeance.  He  had  become  corpulent 
during  the  latter  part  of  his  life;  and  once,  when 
ill,  had  been  made  the  subject  of  a silly  jest  on 
the  part  of  the  king  of  France.  William  took  it  to 
heart,  and,  on  his  recovery,  commenced  to  lay  waste  the 
border  lands  of  France.  While  riding  through  the 
burning  town  of  Mantes,  his  horse  reared  among  the 
hot  embers  that  filled  the  road,  and  he  received  injuries 
from  the  pommel  of  his  saddle  that  terminated,  in  a 
few  weeks,  in  his  death,  at  Rouen.  He  left  the  kingdom 
of  England  to  his  second  son  William,  called  Rufus  or 
the  Red  King,  from  the  color  of  his  hair.  To  Robert, 
the  eldest  son,  set  aside  on  account  of  a rebellion  in 
which  he  had  engaged,  he  gave  the  dukedom  of  Nor- 
mandy. William’s  wife  was  Matilda,*  daughter  of  the 
Earl  of  Flanders,  through  whom  the  present  royal 
house  of  England  traces  its  descent  from  Egbert. 


* Ethel  wolf,  eldest  sou  of  Egbert,  had  by  his  first  wife  four  sons, 
Alfred  the  Great  being  the  youngest.  Ilia  second  wife  was  Judith, 
daughter  ot  Charles  the  Bald  tf  France.  lie  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Elhelbald,  who  also  married  Judith,  his  father’s  widow.  At  Ethelbald’s 
death  Judith  went  back  to  her  father’s  court  and  eloped  with  Baldwin,  after- 
wards Earl  of  Flanders.  Their  son  married  hlfrida,  daughter  of  Alfred  the 
Great,  and  from  them  sprang  Matilda,  wife  of  William  the  Conqueror. 

The  famous  “ Bayeux  Tapestry  ” was  the  handiwork  of  Matilda.  This 
was  a piece  of  canvas  sixty-eight  yards  long  and  nineteen  inches  wide,  on 
which  were  embroidered  in  wool,  scenes  and  figures,  giving  a complete 
pictorial  history  of  the  Conquest. 


WILLIAM  II. 


37 


William  II.  1087  to  1100  — 13  years.  Norman. 

Rebellion  of  the  Barons.  William  II.  was  greeted, 
on  his  arrival  in  England,  with  a rebellion  of  the 
barons  in  behalf  of  Robert.  By  the  aid  of  the 
English,  whom  he  rallied  to  his  support  by  the  promise 
of  good  laws  — a promise  that  was  forgotten  as  soon  as 
the  danger  was  past — the  rebellion  was  quelled.  Still 
another  attempt  was  made  by  the  barons,  later  in  the 
reign,  to  dethrone  the  king  and  put  in  his  place,  Stephen, 
a grandson  of  the  Conqueror;  but  this,  too,  failed,  for 
the  Red  King  proved  himself  every  inch  a soldier  and 
equal  to  any  emergency. 

Character  of  William  II.  In  personal  courage, 
violence  of  temper,  and  strength  of  will,  he  was  the 
equal  of  the  Conqueror  himself,  but  in  all  the  higher 
moral  qualities  he  was  greatly  his  inferior.  He  was 
coarse  and  profane  in  speech,  mean  and  covetous 
in  disposition,  and  prodigal  and  licentious  in  his  habits. 
He  kept  his  ministers  busy  devising  means  to  wring 
new  taxes  from  his  people. 

By  a law  of  the  realm,  the  revenues  of  vacant  secs 
and  abbeys  went  to  the  crown.  The  Red  King  refused 
to  fill  vacancies  that  occurred  during  his  reign,  that  he 
might  appropriate  their  incomes,  thus  robbing  the 
church  of  its  rights,  and  the  people  of  religious  privi- 
leges. The  money  thus  obtained  went  to  gratify  his 
desire  for  debasing  pleasures,  and  to  enrich  worthless 
courtiers.  He  was  twice  engaged  in  hostilities  with 
Malcolm,  King  of  Scotland,  compelling  the  latter  to  do 
him  homage  as  his  superior. 


38 


WILLIAM  II. 


The  lied  King  met  with  a tragic  death  while  hunting 
in  the  new  forest  which  his  father  had  made.  He  was 
found  pierced  to  the  brain  with  an  arrow,  whether 
by  design  or  accident  was  never  known.  But  he 
is  supposed  to  have  been  killed  by  Walter  Tyrrcl, 
one  of  the  king’s  party,  who  immediately  fled  from  the 
country.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  younger  brother 
Henry,  Robert  the  elder  brother  not  having  returned 
from  the  Holy  Land,  whither  he  had  gone  on  a Crusade. 

The  Crusades.  The  reign  of  William  II.  marks  the 
beginning  of  the  Crusades.  These  were  military  expe- 
ditions, undertaken  on  a large  scale  by  the  Christian 
nations  of  Europe,  to  free  the  Holy  Land  from  the  rule 
and  presence  of  the  Saracen.  Christians  from  all 
countries,  since  the  fourth  century,  had  made  long  and 
painful  pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem, 
cither  as  a penance  for  sin,  or  as  a means  of  attaining  to 
greater  piety;  but  they  had  been  subjected  to  such  dan- 
gers and  indignities  from  the  predatory  infidel,  that  the 
Crusades  were  undertaken  as  a religious  duty. 

They  began  in  the  year  1096,  under  the  lead  and 
preaching  of  a monk  named  Peter  the  Hermit  ( who 
had  himself  suffered  while  on  a pilgrimage) , and  con- 
tinued, at  intervals,  through  a period  of  two  centuries, 
sacrificing,  it  is  computed,  two  millions  of  lives,  and 
leaving  the  Holy  Land  still  in  the  hands  of  the  Saracen. 

The  Benefits  of  the  Crusades.  Though  failing  to 
accomplish  their  primal  object,  the  Crusades  were  pro- 
ductive of  great  good  in  other  directions.  They  brought 
the  Christian  nations  into  greater  harmony  with  each 
other  by  uniting  them  in  a common  cause,  and  into  im- 
mediate contact  with  the  East,  making  them  familiar  with 


WILLIAM  II. 


39 


its  arts,  institutions,  and  laws,  and  opening  to  them  its 
rich  and  varied  commerce.  They  caused  the  construc- 
tion of  numerous  vessels  for  the  transportation  of  cru- 
saders, thus  stimulating  ship-building  and  navigation, 
and  ultimately  turning  men’s  attention  from  the  arts  of 
war  to  those  of  peace.  They  enlisted  and  sent  abroad 
the  dangerous  and  turbulent  elements,  for  the  most  part 
never  to  return,  thus  purifying  and  making  society  at 
home  safer  and  more  peaceful.  They  struck  the  first 
great  blow  at  the  Feudal  system,  by  compelling  the 
nobles  to  sell  or  divide  their  great  estates  to  raise 
money  for  their  outfit.  Finally  they  gave  birth  to  the 
spirit  and  system  of  Chivalry,  whose  value  at  this 
period,  the  darkest  of  the  Dark  Ages,  can  hardly  be 
over-estimated. 

The  System  of  Chivalry.  Christianity  had  to  a 
great  extent  lost  its  power;  and  superstition,  gross  and 
degrading,  reigned  supreme.  War  with  all  its  unmeasured 
depths  of  vice  and  crime  and  woe,  was  the  pastime  of 
kings  or  the  mere  instrument  of  personal  ambition  and 
passion,  and  even  peace,  when  it  came,  instead  of 
bringing  new  life  to  art  and  industry,  left  men  to  sink 
into  a more  degrading  ignorance  and  a still  grosser 
superstition.  During  the  Middle  Ages  spiritual  dark- 
ness brooded  over  all  the  nations.  Sleep,  like  the  sleep 
of  death,  rested  on  the  human  intellect.  The  spirit  of 
Chivalry  was  light  breaking  upon  the  long  and  dreadful 
night,  a clarion  note  awaking  the  world  from  the  sleep 
of  ages.  It  appealed  to  the  nobler  sentiments  of  the 
soul,  inspiring  the  love  of  truth,  honor,  and  religion, 
and  enjoining  the  practice  of  courtesy,  chastity,  and 
humanity. 


40 


WIJJ.IAM  II. 


Though,  with  its  solemn  oath,  imposed  on  all  who 
aspired  to  its  honors,  and  its  iron  garb,  the  insignia  of 
knightly  character,  it  could  not  always  transform  rude 
and  brutal  men  into  true  and  chivalric  knights,  it  did 
place  upon  rudeness  and  brutality  a needed  and  effec- 
tive check.  Who  can  estimate  its  worth  to  woman , in 
the  protection  it  gave  her,  through  those  long  and 
gloomy  ages,  when  sensual  pleasure  was  the  chief  aim, 
and  brute  force  the  highest  law,  known  to  most  men? 

The  system  of  chivalry,  both  ludicrous  and  imprac- 
tical in  some  of  its  features,  when  viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  nineteenth  century,  passed  away  before 
an  advancing  civilization;  but  its  spirit , enlarged  and 
purified  by  true  religion,  still  exists  in  the  enlightened 
public  sentiment  of  modern  times. 

Henry  I.,  1100  to  1135  — 35  Years.  Norman. 

First  Charter  of  Liberties.  Henry  I.,  surnamed 
Beauclerc  the  Scholar,  wras  clearly  a usurper.  Being 
opposed  by  the  barons,  who  espoused  the  cause  of 
Robert,  now  on  his  way  home  from  Palestine,  Henry 
following  the  example  of  William,  fell  back  on  the 
support  of  the  English.  He  gave  them  a Charter  of 
Liberties,  in  which  he  restored  the  laws  of  Edward, 
renounced  the  right  to  plunder  the  church  by  allowing 
its  sees  and  abbeys  to  remain  vacant,  and  shielded  the 
people  from  the  unjust  exactions  of  their  lords,  the 
barons. 


IIENRY  I. 


41 


To  conciliate  the  English  still  further,  he  married 
Matilda,  or  Maud,*  as  the  English  loved  to  call  her,  a 
descendant  of  Edmund  Ironside,  thus  uniting  the 
Saxon  and  Nonnan  families. 

Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy.  The  enthusiasm  of  the 
English  masses,  at  the  elevation  of  an  English  prin- 
cess to  the  throne,  was  unbounded,  and  when  Robert 
landed  in  England,  and  raised  his  standard  as  the 
rightful  heir  to  the  crown,  he  found  himself,  face 
to  face,  with  sixty  thousand  resolute  English  yeo- 
men, and  surrendered  to  Henry  without  a battle. 
A treaty  was  made  between  the  brothers,  Robert  yield- 
ing all  claims  to  the  crown,  for  a pension  for  himself 
and  pardon  for  all  his  followers.  And  now  occurs  the 
darkest  act  of  Henry’s  reign.  Robert  had  no  sooner 
returned  to  Normandy,  and  the  barons  dispersed  to 
their  castles,  than  commenced  under  Henry’s  direction 
the  confiscation  of  the  estates  ot  all  implicated  in  the 
rebellion.  The  chivalric  Robert,  indignant  at  the 
treachery  of  his  brother,  at  once  called  his  retainers  to 
arms  and  renewed  the  war.  The  king,  claiming  that 
the  treaty  had  been  broken,  invaded  Normandy,  de- 
feated Robert’s  army,  took  Robert  himself  prisoner, 
and  doomed  him  to  life-long  confinement  within  the 
walls  of  Cardiff  Castle.  It  is  affirmed  that  having  once 
attempted  to  escape,  Henry  caused  his  eyes  to  be  put 
out  with  a hot  iron.  This  noblest  of  the  sons  of  the 

♦When  Canute  seized  the  crown  in  1017,  he  sent  the  infant  sons  of  Edmund 
Ironside  to  Germany. 

The  Confessor  on  coming  to  the  throne,  twenty -four  years  later,  invited  Ed- 
ward,the  only  survivor  of  these  sons, to  return  to  England.  Edward  died  soon 
alter  his  arrival,  and  his  family,  at  the  coming  of  William  the  Conqueror,  took 
refuge  in  Scotland,  where  his  daughter  Margaret  married  King  Malcolm. 
Maud  was  the  offspring  of  this  marriage. 


42 


IIENIIY  I. 


Conqueror  lingered  twenty-nine  years  in  sightless  con- 
finement, dying,  at  last,  in  his  dungeon  an  old  man  of 
eighty  years. 

Character  and  Reign  of  Henry.  Henry’s  character 
was  a strange  admixture  of  virtues  and  vices.  lie 
was  unscrupulous,  false-hearted, and  revengeful,  but  he 
promoted  the  welfare  of  his  people,  encouraged  manu- 
factures, improved  the  coinage,  established  a system 
of  weights  and  measures,  repealed  the  odious  law  of  the 
. Curfew,  and  re-organized  the  courts  of  justice.  Henry’s 
system  of  justice,  with  modifications  and  improvements, 
is  the  system  of  to-day,  both  in  England  and  America. 
Ho  dealt  a heavy  blow  at  the  Feudal  system,  and  gave 
an  impulse  to  liberty,  when  he  endowed  the  great 
towns  with  charters  of  freedom. 

The  White  Ship.  The  last  years  of  Henry’s  life 
were  sad  and  gloomy,  on  account  of  the  death  by  ship- 
wreck, of  his  only  son,  Prince  William.  They  had  been 
on  a visit  to  Normandy,  to  secure  the  acknowledgment 
of  the  Prince  as  heir  to  the  crown,  and  to  complete  his 
marriage  contract  with  the  daughter  of  the  Count  of 
Anjou.  Both  matters  being  satisfactorily  arranged, 
they  embarked  for  the  return,  on  different  ships.  The 
White  Ship,  in  which  William  had  taken  passage,  being 
delayed,  attempted  to  overtake  the  rest  of  the  fleet  by 
moonlight.  Speeding  swiftly  along  under  the  sweep  of 
its  fifty  rowers,  it  struck  on  a rock  in  the  race  of  Alder- 
ney and  went  to  the  bottom.  Only  a single  soul 
escaped  to  tell  the  sad  tale  to  the  bereaved  father,  wdio 
is  said  never  to  have  smiled  again. 

Henry  left  a daughter  Matilda,  whom  lie  had  married 
to  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  Earl  of  Anjou,  to  strengthen 


IIENRY  I. 


43 


bib  pu  sessions  bej’ond  the  channel.  Before  she  could 
return  to  England  to  take  the  crown  that  belonged  to 
her,  it  was  seized  by  Stephen,  Count  of  Blois,  nephew 
of  the  late  king.  Affable  in  his  manners  and  familiar 
in  his  address,  Stephen  had  made  himself  a general 
favorite  with  the  people  of  the  capital,  and  so  paved  his 
way  to  power. 

— Stephen,  1135  to  1154  — 19  years.  Norman. 

Civil  War.  Matilda  endeavored  to  secure  her  rights 
by  force  of  aims.  David,  King  of  Scotland,  was  the 
first  to  espouse  her  cause.  With  an  army  of  wild  and 
lawless  highlanders,  he  invaded  the  northern  counties, 
inflicting  havoc  alike  on  the  friends  and  foes  of  Matilda. 
Against  this  army  of  marauders,  the  Archbishop  of 
York  took  the  field,  and,  in  the  battle  of  the  Stand- 
ard, put  them  to  utter  rout  and  drove  them  across  the 
border.  Matilda  herself  reached  England  the  next 
year  with  a small  force,  and  her  adherents  quickly 
gathered  to  her  support.  In  the  battle  of  Lincoln  the 
army  of  Stephen  was  defeated,  and  Stephen  himself 
captured  and  sent,  in  chains,  to  Bristol  Castle. 

Matilda  entered  London  and  was  acknowledged 
queen  of  England.  But  her  haughty  manners  and 
violent  temper,  so  much  in  contrast  with  the  generous 
and  good  natured  ways  of  Stephen,  soon  changed  even 
her  friends  to  foes.  The  rapid  approach  of  Stephen’s 
heroic  queen  at  the  head  of  an  army,  and  the  ringing 
of  the  alarm  bells  in  London,  having  caused  a sudden 
uprising  of  the  people,  Matilda  fled,  in  haste,  from  the 
city,  and  took  refuge  within  the  walls  of  Oxford  Castle. 


44 


STEPHEN  • 


Stephen,  once  more  at  liberty  and  at  the  head  of  his 
army,  in  1142,  surrounded  her  place  of  refuge,  so  dis- 
posing his  men  as,  apparently,  to  cut  off  every  avenue 
of  escape.  The  garrison  ran  short  of  provisions,  and 
Matilda  with  three  devoted  knights,  clad  like  herself 
in  white  to  resemble  the  snow  that  covered  the  ground 
(for  it  was  mid-winter),  passed  silently  through  the 
lines  of  Stephen’s  army  in  the  night,  crossed  the  frozen 
Thames,  and  found  refuge  among  the  loyal  people 
of  the  west,  whence,  four  years  later,  she  withdrew 
to  France.  Her  son  Henry  had  now  grown  up  to 
manhood.  Possessed,  by  inheritance  and  marriage,  of 
the  larger  part  of  France,  he  collected  an  army  of  his 
own  subjects,  crossed  the  channel,  and  re-opened  the 
war  with  Stephen. 

Compromise  Between  Stephen  and  Henry.  But  the 
bishops  of  England,  under  the  lead  of  Theobald,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  weary  of  a struggle  that  had 
brought  such  fearful  waste,  and  to  which  they  could 
see  no  end,  finally,  in  1153,  effected  the  treaty  of 
Wallingford.  It  was  mutually  agreed  that  the  crowrn 
should  remain  wTith  Stephen  while  he  lived,  and  descend 
to  Henry  at  his  death.  It  wras  also  decided  that  the 
grants  of  crown  lands  made  by  Stephen  should  be  can- 
celled, the  new  castles  demolished,  and  the  foreign 
troops  dismissed. 

The  Robber  Barons.  Two  things  influenced  Stephen 
to  consent  to  this  arrangement,  the  death  of  his  eldest 
son,  and  the  defection  of  his  principal  nobles,  some  of 
whom  had  turned  against  him,  while  more  had  abandon- 
ed the  contest  and  retired  to  their  estates.  We  find 
here  a practical  illustration  of  the  workings  of  the 


STEPHEN. 


45 


Feudal  system.  To  win  the  support  of  the  barons, 
Stephen  had,  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  given  them 
permission  to  build  new  castles  on  their  estates,  besides 
granting  new  titles  of  nobility  to  his  chosen  adherents. 
One  hundred  and  twenty-six  fortresses  were  thus  erect- 
ed, many  of  them  of  great  strength  and  frowning  from 
inaccessible  heights.  Secure  in  these,  the  barons  lived 
like  petty  princes,  defying  the  authority  of  the  king, 
and  renewing  old  family  quarrels.  They  plundered 
the  country  around  their  estates,  and  taxed  its  inhabi- 
tants till  famine  stared  them  in  the  face.  Even 
churches  were  robbed  of  their  wealth.  The  rich  were 
waylaid  as  they  journeyed,  and  held  or  tortured  for 
ransom.  These  nobles  have  gained  in  history  the  well- 
deserved  title  of  Robber  Barons. 

The  Outlaws  of  the  Forest.  Following  their  exam- 
ple, criminals  and  outcasts,  unemployed  soldiers  and 
starving  peasants,  everywhere  took  to  the  woods  and 
became  outlaws,  making  it  dangerous  to  travel  in  some 
districts  without  an  armed  escort.  Banded  together, 
sometimes  in  large  numbers,  they  set  laws  and  authori- 
ties at  defiance,  or,  retreating  to  their  hiding  places  in 
the  dense  recesses  of  the  forest,  were  safe  from  pursuit. 
While  many  of  these  bandits  were  rude  and  ruthless 
men,  sparing  neither  age  nor  sex,  others  were  generous 
and  courteous,  robbing  the  rich  to  relieve  the  wants  of  the 
poor.  Such  was  Robin  Hood,  the  very  prince  of  bandits, 
who,  some  fifty  years  later,  in  the  reign  of  Richard  I., 
with  a hundred  free  and  jovial  companions,  occupied 
the  depths  of  the  Sherwood  forest. 

It  is  difficult  to  depict  the  anarchy  and  misery  to 
which  England  was  reduced  in  the  reign  of  Stephen. 


4(5 


STEPHEN. 


Towns  were  abandoned,  farms  were  left  to  decay,  the 
sanctuaries  were  crowded  with  helpless,  starving  peo- 
ple, and  thousands  fled,  in  terror,  to  foreign  countries. 

Stephen  lived  but  a year  after  the  treaty  of  Walling- 
ford, and  Henry,  quietly  and  unopposed,  assumed  the 
crown.  Having  both  Saxon  and  Norman  blood 
in  his  veins,  a new  name,  that  of  his  father,  Plan- 
tagenet,*  was  given  to  the  royal  line  he  founded. 


♦The  name  Plantagenefc  is  derived  from  Planta  Genista , a common  shrub 
called  broom,  which  the  fiist  Earl  of  Anjou  wore  as  an  emblem,  while  on  a pil- 
grimage to  the  Holy  Land. 


CHAPTER  V. 


Planfagenet  Family,  1154  to  1485  — 331  Years* 


Henry  II.,  1154  to  1189  — 35  years.  Plantagenet. 

The  Condition  of  England.  No  king  ever  mounted 
the  English  throne  under  circumstances  more  peculiar, 
and,  in  some  respects,  more  appalling,  than  greeted  the 
first  Plantagenet  on  his  accession  to  power.  During 
the  reign  of  Stephen,  the  entire  fabric  of  society  had 
fallen  to  pieces,  and  both  regard  for  law  and  respect 
for  religion  had  been  swept  away  in  the  general  wreck. 
Beginning  with  the  nobility,  the  spirit  of  lawlessness 
had  permeated  the  priesthood  and  the  peasantry.  It 
is  no  wonder  the  helpless  peasant  either  became  an 
outlaw,  or,  in  consternation,  abandoned  home  and  har- 
vest-field and  fled  beyond  seas,  when  priest  and  noble 
turned  robber ! This  was  the  peculiar  and  appalling 
aspect  of  the  case,  that  the  best  and  highest  elements 
in  society  had  become,  for  the  time  being,  most  demor- 
alized. Henry,  though  but  twenty-one  years  of  age 
when  he  ascended  the  throne,  undertook  the  work  of 
reconstruction  with  a courage  and  an  intelligence  that 


HENRY  II. 

RICHARD -I.,  Coeur-de-Lion. 
JOHN.,  Lackland. 

HENRY  III.,  of  Winchester. 
EDWARD  I. 


EDWARD  II.,  of  Caernarvon. 
EDWARD  III. 

RICHARD  II.,  of  Bordeaux. 
HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER. 
HOUSE  OF  YORK. 


48 


HENRY  II. 


challenge  our  admiration.  His  efforts  were  mainly 
directed  to  the  accomplishment  of  two  distinct  ends, 
the  establishment  of  order,  and  the  correction  of  the 
abuses  of  the  church. 

The  Establishment  of  Order.  The  Robber  Barons 
were,  one  after  another,  subdued,  and  their  castles  razed 
to  the  ground;  and  the  less  noble,  but  no  worse, 
highwaymen,  the  forest  outlaws,  were  mercilessly  hunt- 
ed down.  The  crown  lands  were  also  reclaimed,  and 
foreign  soldiers  expelled.  To  increase  the  power  of 
the  crown,  and  weaken  that  of  the  baronage  still  more, 
two  sweeping  edicts  were  issued.  One,  in  1159,  sub- 
stituted the  payment  of  money,  called  '"shield  money,” 
for  the  personal  services  of  the  barons  in  time  of  war, 
enabling  the  king  to  keep  a paid  and  standing  force. 
The  other,  in  1181,  restored  the  militia,  making  every 
freeman  a soldier,  always  to  be  suitably  armed,  and 
subject  to  the  call  of  the  king  in  time  of  national  danger. 

Contest  between  Church  and  State.  Henry’s  con- 
test with  the  church  was  not  only  more  difficult,  but 
more  dangerous,  than  that  with  the  barons.  Ancient- 
ly, judges  and  bishops  sat  together  on  the  civil  bench- 
es, but  the  Concpieror  had  established  separate  courts 
for  ecclesiastical  cases,  over  which  the  bishops  pre- 
sided alone.  Criminals  in  holy  orders  were  thus 
put  beyond  the  reach  of  the  civil  authorities,  and  as,  by 
a canon  of  the  church,  the  priesthood  could  not  impose 
the  death  penalty  upon  one  of  their  own  order,  these 
priestly  criminals  were  also  put  beyond  the  reach  of 
extreme  punishment.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the 
church  had  grown  arrogant  and  independent,  or  that 
one  hundred  murders  were  proved  to  have  been  com- 


HENRY  II. 


41) 


mitted,  during  the  first  few  years  of  Henry's  reign,  by 
priests,  who  either  suffered  no  punishment,  or  one  not 
at  all  commensurate  with  the  crime.  They  merely 
suffered  some  trifling  penance  or  degradation  in  office. 

The  Council  of  Clarendon.  At  the  summons  of  the 
king,  a council  of  nobles  and  prelates  met  at  the  castle 
of  Clarendon  in  1164.  It  was  decided  by  this  council, 
among  other  things,  that  the  civil  courts  should  have 
a certain  jurisdiction  over  the  church  courts,  and  that 
law-breaking  priests,  on  conviction  in  the  latter,  should 
be  stripped  of  their  orders  and  turned  over  to  the  civil 
authorities  for  punishment. 

Thomas  a Becket  and  King  Henry.  Thomas  a 
Becket  had  been  Henry’s  bosom  friend  and  compan- 
ion. Henry  had  raised  him  from  poverty  to  affluence, 
from  the  position  of  tutor  to  his  children,  to  that  of 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  highest  office  of  the 
church  in  England.  Becket  at  first  accepted,  then  re- 
jected, the  "Constitutions  of  Clarendon and  then 
began  that  long  and  bitter  struggle  between  himself 
and  the  king,  in  which  personal  animosities  are 
strangely  mingled  with  the  graver  affairs  of  church 
and  state,  ending  in  the  violent  death  of  Becket  in  1170, 
and  the  ultimate  triumph  of  the  king.  The  priesthood 
and  the  laity  were  made  equal  before  the  law.  The 
supremacy  of  the  state  over  the  church  was  achieved. 
Although,  after  the  death  of  Becket,  the  king  assented 
to  a modification  of  the  "Constitutions,”  it  was  merely 
nominal,  the  practice  of  the  courts  and  the  submission 
of  the  bishops  showing  that  the  king  still  retained  all 
the  substantial  fruits  of  victory. 


50 


HENRY  II. 


The  Death  of  Thomas  a Bechet.  The  death  of 
Becket  was  tragic.  Four  knights  in  attendance  on 
the  king  in  Normandy,  interpreting  too  seriously  his 
rash  and  impatient  wish  " to  be  rid  of  the  turbulent 
priest,”  silently  left  the  royal  presence,  and  secretly 
crossed  the  English  Channel.  Making  their  way  to  the 
gray  old  Cathedral  of  Canterbury, — where  shortly  be- 
fore* on  Christmas  day,  Becket,  sad  but  undismayed,  had 
preached  to  the  peasantry  from  the  text  "I  come  to  die 
among  you,” — the  knightly  assassins,  backed  by  their 
followers,  murdered  him  before  his  own  altar.  A cry 
of  horror  arose  from  all  Christendom.  For  the  first 
time  during  the  bitter  struggle  Henry  bent  before  the 
storm.  He  disclaimed  all  responsibility  for  the  crime, 
and  afterwards  publicly  expressed  his  sorrow  for  its 
commission,  by  walking  barefooted  to  the  tomb  of 
Becket,  and  submitting  his  back  to  the  scourge  of  the 
monks ; and  the  threatened  excommunication  was 
averted.  The  guilty  knights  went  on  a pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem,  where  they  died;  and  on  their  tomb  was 
inscribed  this  epitaph,  " Here  lie  the  wretches  who  mur- 
dered St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury.” 

The  Judiciary  System.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
works  of  Henry’s  reign  was  the  improvement  of  the 
judiciary  system  founded  by  Henry  I.  England  was 
divided  into  six  judicial  districts,  each  with  three  itiner- 
ant judges,  who  went  regularly  on  their  circuits, 
having  jurisdiction  alike  over  peasant  and  noble.  The 
most  radical  change  was  made  in  the  form  of  trial. 
The  Anglo-Saxons  brought  with  them,  from  Germany, 
a form  of  trial  called  Compurgation,  A person 
charged  with  crime  was  acquitted  or  convicted. 


TIENRY  II. 


51 


according  as  his  kinsmen  or  neighbors,  generally 
twelve,  or  some  multiple  of  twelve,  in  number,  made 
oath  to  his  innocence  or  guilt.  Another  and  very 
singular  method  of  trial  was  called  the  Judgment  of 
God.  Among  other  things,  if  a suspected  person  could 
cany  a bar  of  red  hot  iron  a certain  distance,  or  plunge 
his  hand  into  boiling  water,  and  in  three  days  show  no 
scar,  he  was  pronounced  innocent,  otherwise,  guilty. 
Sometimes  he  was  thrown  into  deep  water,  and  if  he 
sank  he  was  innocent,  if  he  swam,  guilty.  The  Con- 
queror introduced  Wager  of  Battle,  or  Single  Combat. 
An  accused  person  was  allowed  to  challenge  his  accuser 
to  mortal  combat,  and  if  he  came  out  of  the  fight  vic- 
torious he  was  declared  innocent,  otherwise,  guilty. 

Trial  by  Jury.  “The  first  clear  beginnings’’  of  Trial 
by  Jury  are  found  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II,  when,  by  the 
Assize  of  Clarendon,  in  1166,  twelve  freemen  chosen 
from  the  hundred,  and  four  from  each  township,  acting 
in  the  two-fold  capacity  of  judges  and  witnesses,  pre- 
sented reputed  criminals  for  the  Ordeal  of  Battle,  or  the 
Judgment  of  God.  By  the  same  Assize,  Compurgation 
was  abolished.* 


* Trial  by  Jury  has  generally  been  attributed  to  Alfred  the  Great,  but  there 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  Jury  trials  in  Alfred’s  time  were,  like  those 
of  all  other  Saxon  kings,  trials  of  Compurgation.  Haydn  makes  the  following 
statement,  illustrating  the  fact  that  juries  of  twelve  men  existed  before  Ai- 
fied’s  time.  “In  a cause  tried  at  Uawarden,  nearly  a hundred  years  before 
the  reign  of  Alfred,  we  have  a list  of  twelve  jurors;  confirmed  too,  by  the 
fact  that  the  descendants  of  one  of  them  of  the  name  of  Corbyn  of  the  Gate, 
still  preserve  their  name  and  residence  at  a spot  in  the  parish  yet  called  the 
Gated'  At  the  Fourth  Council  of  Lateran  held  at  Rome  in  12i6,  Henry  III.  being 
King  of  England,  all  Ordeals  were  abolished,  and  went  rapidly  out  of  use.  f 
After  a brief  interval  of  uncertainty  as  to  the  method  of  trial  and  punishment 
in  England,  the  Petit  or  Trial  Jury  came  into  use.  In  the  reign  of 
Edward  I,  persons  having  particular  knowledge  of  the  facts  in  any  ca  e,  were 
added  to  the  jury.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  IV,  a division  was  made,  the  origi- 


52 


IIENUT  II 


Conquest  of  Ireland.  In  this  reign  Ireland  was  con- 
quered by  Strongbow,  Earl  of  Pembroke,  and  added  to 
Henry’s  dominions;  but  the  English  authority  was 
lightly  regarded  for  a hundred  years  to  come. 

Henry’s  Rebellious  Sons.  The  last  years  of  Henry’s 
life  were  greatly  embittered  by  estrangement  from  his 
wife  and  children.  He  had  five  sons,  William,  Henry, 
Geoffrey,  Richard,  and  John.  Encouraged  by  their 
mother,  who  was  a divorced  wife  of  Louis  VI.,  a former 
king  of  France,  and  also  by  Louis  VII.,  the  present 
king  (whose  daughter  Prince  Henry  had  married),  these 
unnatural  sons  repeatedly  attempted  the  overthrow  of 
their  father.  In  one  of  these  attempts,  in  1173,  they 
were  aided  by  William,  King  of  Scotland.  It  was  just 
at  this  time  that  King  Henry,  to  propitiate  divine  favor, 
performed  his  penance  at  the  tomb  of  a Becket.  King 
William  was  captured  the  very  day  the  royal  penance 


nal  jurors  ceasing  to  be  special  witnesses,  though  they  still  made  use  of  their 
personal  knowledge  of  the  tacts  in  making  up  a verdict,  and  the  added  wit- 
nesses ceasing  to  be  jurors.  From  this  time  witnesses  simply  gave  testimony, 
and  the  jurors  decided  whether  it  was  sufficiently  grave  to  warrant  an  indict- 
ment of  the  accused.  This  is  our  modern  Grand  Jury . Henry  II.  restored 
the  King’s  Court.  After  the  Great  Charter  this  court  w as  divided  into  three 
distinct  courts,  the  King’s  Bench,  Exchequer  and  Common  Pleas , which  in 
the  reign  ol  Edward  I.  came  to  have  distinct  judges.  On  account  of  the  cor- 
ruption that  gradually  crept  into  the  Circuit  Courts  established  by  Henry,  he 
authorized  an  appeal  from  their  decisions  to  the  King  in  Council,  thus  forming 
a Court  of  Appeals , from  w hich  has  sprung  the  Privy  Council , now  an  impor- 
tant element  in  the  government. 

t Though  Wager  of  Battle  was  abolished  by  the  Catholic  Council,  the  Eng> 
lish  Statute  authoriz  ng  it  was  not  repealed,  and  it  still  remained  a legal  form 
of  trial,  occasionally  resorted  to,  especially  while  the  age  of  Chivalry  lasted. 
The  last  instance  of  its  use  in  England  is  of  comparatively  modern  date.  In 
3817,  reign  of  George  III.,  a joung  maid  was  believed  to  have  been  murdered 
by  ore  Abraham  Thompson,  who,  in  an  appeal,  claimed  his  right  to  Wager  of 
Battle,  which  the  court  allowed.  He  challenged  the  brother  of  the  maid  to 
mortal  combat,  but  the  latter  refusing  to  fight, the  accused  man,  in  accordance 
with  the  old  statute,  was  at  once  set  at  liberty.  But  the  next  year  the  law  of 
Single  Combat  was  stricken  from  the  Statute  Book. 


HENRY  II. 


53 


was  completed,  and  was  not  released  until  he  consented 
to  acknowledge  himself  a vassal  of  the  English  crown. 
It  was  on  this  acknowledgment  that  Edward  I.,  after- 
wards based  his  claim  to  the  sovereignty  of  Scotland. 

In  their  last  attempt,  Henry  was  compelled  to  submit 
to  the  most  humiliating  terms.  After  the  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed,  the  king,  who  was  sick  in  bed,  asked 
to  see  the  list  of  rebels  he  had  agreed  to  pardon,  and 
the  first  name  that  met  his  eye  was  that  of  John,  his 
youngest  and  his  favorite  son.  He  turned  his  face  to 
the  wall,  heart-broken,  saying,  "Now  let  the  world  go 
as  it  will,  I care  for  nothing  more.”  He  died  soon  after, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  surviving  son,  Richard. 

Richard  I.,  1189  to  1199  — 10  years.  Plantagenet. 

Slaughter  of  Jews.  Richard’s  inauguration  took 
place  in  the  midst  of  a cruel  slaughter  of  Jews.  They 
had  come  to  the  coronation  with  rich  gifts  to  propitiate 
the  royal  favor.  A cry  having  gone  forth  that  the  king 
had  decreed  their  death,  they  were  beset  by  an  ignorant 
and  blood-thirsty  rabble.  Blood  once  shed,  passions 
once  inflamed,  these  hated  but  helpless  people  were 
mercilessly  slaughtered,  and  their  dwellings  burned, 
throughout  the  city.  As  the  news  spread  from  town  to 
town, the  same  terrible  scenes  were  enacted,  the  same 
horrible  butchery  of  innocent  people.  At  York,  five 
hundred  Jews,  with  their  families,  took  refuge  in  the 
Castle,  which  was  speedily  surrounded  by  an  armed 
force.  The  Jews  vainly  offered  their  wealth  as  a ran- 
som for  their  lives.  Having  no  hope  of  mercy,  they 
plunged  their  daggers  into  the  bodies  of  their  own 
wives  and  children,  rather  than  see  them  fall  into  the 


54 


RICHARD  I. 


hands  of  their  infuriated  enemies.  Richard  had 
accepted  their  gifts,  but,  though  he  issued  a proclama- 
tion in  their  favor,  he  took  no  adequate  measures  for 
their  protection. 

Richard  in  the  Holy  Land.  The  Christian  nations 
were  preparing  for  the  third  Crusade.  Richard  and 
Philip  of  France  arranged  to  go  in  company,  at  the  head 
of  their  forces.  To  raise  sufficient  money  for  his  outfit, 
Richard  freely  offered  for  sale  the  lands  of  the  crown, 
besides  titles,  offices,  and  pardons.  At  the  rebuke  of 
one  of  his  friends,  on  account  of  his  wholesale  disposal 
of  crown  property,  he  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  " I 
would  sell  London,  if  I could  find  a purchaser.” 

His  career  in  the  Holy  Land  is  full  of  the  stirring 
incidents  of  battle  and  adventure.  He  captured  Acre 
and  defeated  Saladin,  the  great  Saracen,  at  Ascalon. 
Philip,  jealous  of  Richard’s  grooving  fame,  abandoned 
the  Crusade  and  returned  to  France.  John,  Richard’s 
brother,  probably  instigated  by  Philip,  usurped  the 
government  of  England,  and  w^as  planning  to  seize  the 
crown,  when  Richard,  alarmed  for  the  safety  of  his 
kingdom,  prepared  to  return  home.  Effecting  a treaty 
with  Saladin,  by  which  pilgrims  could  visit  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  unmolested,  Richard  reluctantly  turned  his 
back  upon  Jerusalem,  the  goal  of  many  hopes,  whose 
walls  were,  indeed,  in  sight,  but  within  which  he  was 
destined  never  to  enter. 

Richard  a Captive  in  the  Tyrol.  Being  wrecked  in 
the  Adriatic,  and  attempting  to  make  his  way  overland 
to  England  to  escape  the  cruisers  of  Philip,  ho  fell 
into  the  hands  of  his  enemy,  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many. After  lying  a captive  for  more  than  a year,  in 


RICHARD  I. 


55 


the  Tyrol,  lie  was  released  on  the  payment  by  the  Eng- 
lish people  of  one  hundred  thousand  marks,  as  ransom. 
The  English  people  were  reduced  to  the  greatest  dis- 
tress to  raise  the  money,  the  churches  even  melting 
down  their  plate.  Richard  returned,  in  1194,  after  an 
absence  of  four  years.  "Take  care  of  yourself,”  wrote 
Philip  to  John,  who  hastened  to  leave  the  country. 
But  returning  at  Richard’s  command,  he  confessed  on 
his  knees  his  traitorous  designs,  and  humbly  asked  for 
pardon.  Said  Lion  Heart  with  characteristic  generos- 
ity, "I  hope  I shall  as  easily  forget  his  ingratitude, 
as  he  will,  my  forbearance.” 

War  with  France  and  Death  of  Richard.  Richard 
remained  in  England  a few  months,  and  then  crossed  the 
Channel  to  wage  war  with  Philip.  Learning  that  the 
Viscount  of  Limoges,  one  of  his  vassals,  had  found 
hidden  treasure  in  one  of  his  fields,  Richard  demanded 
its  surrender,  under  the  common  law  that  made  treasure- 
trove  the  property  of  the  Crown.  The  demand  was 
refused,  and  Richard  at  once  besieged  the  Viscount  in 
his  castle  of  Chalus.  During  the  siege  he  received  a 
mortal  wound,  and  died,  as  he  had  lived,  in  armor. 
Though  ten  years'  king  of  England,  he  had  spent  less 
than  one  in  his  kingdom. 

Character  of  Richard  I.  Richard  the  Lion  Heart 
was  a valiant  and  romantic  knight,  who  loved  tilts  and 
tournaments  better  than  royal  courts,  daring  deeds  on 
hard-fought  battle-fields,  than  the  irksome  cares  and 
dry  details  of  government.  His  very  name,  embalmed 
iu  song  and  story,  has  become  a synonym  for  Chiv- 
alry. In  Richard,  the  king  was  subordinate  to  the 
knight,  and  since  he  made  so  poor  a king,  it  would, 


56 


RICHARD  I. 


doubtless,  please  the  young  who  may  read  this  book, 
could  we  represent  him  as,  at  least,  a model  knight, 
famous  for  humanity  and  true  nobility,  as  well  as  match- 
less valor.  But  beneath  Richard’s  iron  armor  there 
beat  a hard,  cold,  selfish  heart.  Though  fearless 
of  danger  and  mighty  in  battle,  courteous  to  a gallant 
enemy  and  generous  to  a fallen  foe,  a skilled  musician 
and  familiar  with  the  songs  of  the  Troubadours,  Rich- 
ard was  brutal  and  unscrupulous,  and  stained  his 
knightly  honor  by  many  a dark  and  cruel  deed.  He 
cared  little  for  the  happiness  or  welfare  of  his  people, 
the  power  to  gratify  an  inordinate  love  of  military 
glory  and  daring  adventure  being  the  limit  of  his  am- 
bition. Though  dazzled  by  his  brilliant  personal  quali- 
ties, and  proud  of  his  world-wide  renown,  England 
mingled  a sense  of  relief  with  a sigh  of  regret,  when 
her  roving  soldier-king,  whose  genius  had  both  impov- 
erished and  glorified  her,  rested  forever  at  Fontevrault. 

John.,  1199  to  1216  — 17  years.  Plantagenet. 

Character  of  John.  John,  the  craven-heart,  was  as 
base  and  cowardly,  as  Richard  the  Lion  Heart  was  gen- 
erous and  knightly.  He  had,  indeed,  a brazen  bold- 
ness in  the  midst  of  safety,  but  it  quickly  vanished  at 
the  presence  of  danger.  Though  grossly  impious  in 
his  treatment  of  the  sacred  rites  of  the  church,  he  was 
childishly  superstitious,  wearing  charms  and  relics 
about  his  person  as  a safeguard  against  evil.  Other 
English  kings  have  been  corrupt,  but  there  is  no  king 
in  all  the  list  so  basely  licentious  as  he. 


JOHX. 


57 


Loss  of  Possessions  in  France.  He  is  generally  believ- 
ed to  have  murdered,  with  his  own  hand,  his  nephew 
Arthur,  a boy  of  fifteen  and  the  rightful  heir  to  the 
throne,  and  to  have  kept  Eleanor,  sister  to  Arthur,  in 
close  confinement,  till  she  wasted  away  and  died.  In 
retaliation  for  his  treatment  of  Arthur,  he  was  stripped 
of  all  his  possessions  on  the  continent  by  the  king  of 
France,  and  was  ever  after  called  Lackland.  To 
recover  them,  he  raised  a large  army  and  invaded  the 
territories  of  France.  When  the  opposing  armies 
were  on  the  eve  of  battle,  John  proposed  peace,  and 
ignominiously  fled  to  England  in  the  very  midst  of 
negotiations. 

John’s  Quarrel  with  the  Pope.  John  quarrelled  with 
the  pope  about  the  appointment  of  an  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  He  had  secured  the  election,  by  the 
monks,  of  John  de  Gray,  but  Pope  Innocent  III. 
appointed  Stephen  Langton.  The  monks,  submitting 
to  the  decision  of  their  superior  and  recognizing 
Langton,  were  turned  out  of  doors  and  reduced  to 
beggary  by  the  enraged  tyrant. 

The  Papal  Interdict.  He  made  light  of  the  papal 
threat  to  lay  the  kingdom  under  an  Interdict,  and 
when  it  fell,  in  1208,  with  all  its  horrors,  upon  the  land, 
he  alone  seemed  insensible  to  the  blow.  The  pope 
waited  one  year,  and  then  issued  against  John,  who  still 
remained  obdurate,  a bull  of  excommunication.  Even 
this  had  no  terrors  for  John,  and  in  about  three  years 
more  was  launched  against  him  the  last  and  crowning 


58 


JOHN. 


decree  of  the  church,  that  of  Deposition.  * Philip  of 
Prance  was  specially  commissioned  with  the  execution 
of  this  final  decree. 

John’s  Submission  to  the  Pope.  For  a while  John 
continued  defiant.  But  when  Philip  had  assembled 
a great  army  ready  for  invasion,  with  seventeen 
hundred  ships  for  its  transportation  across  the 
channel,  and  the  elements  of  opposition  at  home 
were  beginning  to  gather  like  a dark  cloud  about 
him,  his  bravado  forsook  him,  and  his  submission 
to  the  pope  was  as  abject  and  pitiful  as  it  was  sudden 
and  complete. 

Said  William  the  Conqueror,  when  Pope  Gregory 
VII.  called  on  him  to  do  fealty  for  his  realm,  "Fealty 
I have  never  willed  to  do,  nor  do  I will  to  do  it  now. 
I have  never  promised  it,  nor  do  I find  that  my  prede- 
cessors did  it  to  yours.”  Every  true  Englishman  expe- 
rienced a share  of  the  national  shame,  when  the  degen- 
erate descendant  of  the  Conqueror,  on  his  knees,  at 
the  feet  of  the  papal  legate,  acknowledged  himself  a 
vassal,  and  his  kingdom  a fief  of  the  Papacy.  It  was 


*It  is  difficult  to  realize  at  this  day  the  horrors  of  the  Papal  Interdict.  To  the 
people,  it  was  nothing  less  than  the  curse  of  God.  All  England  was  at  once 
plunged  into  deepest  gloom,  for  the  blessings  and  benedictions  of  religion 
were  suddenly  withdrawn  from  all  except  the  unconscious  infant  and  the 
dying.  For  four  long  years  it  was  as  though  a pestilence  had  swept  over  the 
land.  The  churches  were  closed,  and  their  bells  hung  motionless  in  the  belfries. 
“ No  knell  was  tolled  for  the  dead ; for  the  dead  remained  unburied.  No  merry 
peals  welcomed  the  bridal  procession;  for  no  couple  could  be  joined  in 
wedlock.” 

Excommunication  adds  but  little  to  the  miseries  entailed  by  the  Interdict, 
except  to  the  one  who  suffers  it.  According  to  the  tenets  of  the  church  and 
universal  belief  at  that  age,  an  excommunicated  person  was  cut  off  from  all 
hope  of  Heaven  as  well  as  all  fellowship  in  the  church  on  earth. 

The  decree  of  Deposition  absolved  the  people  from  their  allegiance,  the 
throne  being  declared  vacant.  It  was  made  lawful  and  Christian  for  any  man 
to  kill  a deposed  king. 


JOHN. 


59 


the  first  And  the  last  time,  in  its  history  of  a thousand 
years,  that  a king  of  England  surrendered  to  a foreign 
potentate  the  independence  of  his  country. 

Magna  Cliarta,  A.D.  1215.  With  John’s  submission, 
the  papal  decrees  were  recalled,  and  the  French  inva- 
sion stayed.  Elated  at  the  ease  with  which  he  had 
escaped  the  threatened  danger,  and  relying  on  the  sup- 
port of  the  pope,  whose  servant  he  had  become,  John 
next  undertook  to  punish  the  barons  for  refusing  to  join 
him  in  a fresh  war  with  France.  Three  years  of  royal 
outrage  brought  affairs  to  a crisis.  A league,  formed 
in  secret  among  the  barons,  culminated  in  a general 
muster  of  their  forces,  and  John  suddenly  found  him- 
self face  to  face  with  all  England  in  aims. 

At  a conference  on  an  island  in  the  Thames,  John 
was  forced  to  assent  to  the  terms  of  the  barons,  and 
the  next  day,  in  the  valley  of  Runnymede,  signed  the 
Magna  Charta,  the  most  remarkable  instrument  known 
in  English  history.  It  was  not  entirely  new.  Some 
of  its  most  important  principles  can  be  traced  to  Anglo- 
Saxon  origin,  having  been  set  aside  by  the  Norman 
conquest.  Others  were  brought  from  the  reigns  of  the 
Henries,  but  all  were  made  more  broad  and  liberal  and 
couched  in  more  explicit  terms.  The  two  most  impor- 
tant sections  run  as  follows  : — 

Section  45.  " No  freeman  shall  be  taken,  or  disseized, 
or  outlawed,  or  banished,  or  anywise  injured,  nor  will 
we  pass  upon  him,  nor  send  upon  him,  unless  by  the 
legal  judgment  of  his  peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the  land.” 

Section  4G.  "We  will  sell  to  no  man,  we  will  not 
deny  or  delay  to  any  man,  right  or  justice.” 


GO 


JOHN. 


Ill  other  sections,  the  royal  prerogative  was  limited 
and  defined  ; the  rights  of  the  church  guaranteed  ; the 
Feudal  system  relieved  of  some  of  its  grievances  ; 
unlawful  fines  and  punishments  forbidden ; the  free 
disposal  of  personal  property  by  will  allowed  ; the 
means  of  obtaining  a livelihood,  such  as  the  tools  of  the 
mechanic  and  the  goods  of  the  merchant,  were  exempt 
from  fine  or  forfeiture  for  crime  ; fines  were  to  be  pro- 
portioned to  the  offence ; the  circuit  courts  brought 
into  the  neighborhood  of  all,  and  the  liberties  and  cus- 
toms of  free  towns  confirmed. 

So  far  only  freemen  were  benefited.  The  larger 
part  of  the  people  of  England  were  serfs,  and  but 
two  sections  related  directly  to  them.  In  one  of  these, 
agricultural  implements  were  exempt  from  fine  or  for- 
feiture on  account  of  crime,  and  in  the  other,  guardians 
were  charged,  in  the  management  of  the  property  of 
their  wards,  " to  make  no  destruction  or  waste  of  the 
men  and  things .” 

Such  is  a partial  notice  of  the  Great  Charter,  called 
by  Hallam  "the  keystone  of  English  liberty.”  The 
people  of  England  did  not  realize,  for  hundreds  of  years 
to  come,  all  the  benefits  conferred  by  the  Great  Char- 
ter. Its  provisions  were  often  ignored  and  openly  trod- 
den under  foot  by  John  and  his  successors,  but  the  great 
principles  of  justice  and  liberty  which  they  embodied 
Avere  never  forgotten  by  the  people.  They  became, 
amidst  the  oppressions  of  after  times,  the  centres 
around  which  clustered  national  hopes,  the  goal  towards 
which  were  directed  national  efforts.  They  were  so 
many  beacon  lights  in  an  almost  shoreless  sea  of  mis- 
rule, guiding  an  oppressed  people  in  their  struggle  for 


JOHN. 


61 


freedom.  They  are  to-day  the  basis  and  the  bulwark 
of  those  rights  and  immunities  that  make  England  and 
America  the  most  free  and  happy  countries  on  the  earth. 

Patriotism  of  the  Bishops  of  England.  The  rest 
of  John’s  ignoble  history  is  soon  told.  He  surround- 
ed himself  Avith  foreign  soldiers,  for  the  double  pur- 
pose of  taking  vengeance  on  the  barons,  aat1io  had  been 
the  authors,  and  A\7ere  now  the  guardians,  of  the  Char- 
ter, and  of  overthroAving  the  Charter  itself.  JohnAAras 
assisted  by  the  pope,  who  as  over-lord  of  England  an- 
nulled the  Charter,  and  excommunicated  all  Avho  sus- 
tained it.  The  patriotism  of  Archbishop  Langton  and 
most  of  the  bishops  of  the  English  church,  at  this 
period,  should  never  be  forgotten.  Langton  himself 
became  the  leader  of  the  barons  in  their  opposition  to 
the  tyranny  of  John  and  the  assumptions  of  the  pope, 
lie  first  presented  to  them,  at  a preliminary  meeting, 
the  charter  of  Henry  I.,  as  a basis  for  their  demands. 
The  bishops  and  the  barons  stood  side  by  side  at 
Kunnymede,  alike  indifferent  to  the  execrations  of  the 
king  and  the  anathemas  of  the  pope.  In  the  midst 
of  the  contest,  John  suddenly  died.  Overtaken  by  the 
incoming  tide,  as  he  Avas  crossing  a treacherous  place 
by  the  sea-side,  called  the  Wash,  his  treasure  and 
material  Avere  SAvept  aAvay,  and  his  army  thrown  into 
confusion.  Vexation  and  exposure,  or,  as  some  think, 
poison  administered  by  a monk  at  the  abbey  Avliere  John 
found  shelter,  tlireAV  him  into  a fever,  of  Avhich  he  died 
in  a few  days.  His  son  Henry,  a youth  of  ten  years, 
was  at  once  croAArned  King  of  England. 


62 


HENRY  III. 


-Henry  III.,  1216  to  1272  — 56  Years.  Plantagenet. 

The  Regency.  The  Earl  of  Pembroke  was  appointed 
Regent,  and  under  his  vigorous  rule  England  was  soon 
reduced  to  order.  Louis,  a prince  of  France,  who,  in 
the  midst  of  the  struggle  with  John,  had  been  invited 
by  the  barons  to  assume  the  English  crown,  soon  left 
the  country  with  all  his  followers.  The  Charter  was 
confirmed,  and  the  severities  of  the  forest  laws  miti- 
gated, by  the  substitution  of  tine  and  imprisonment, 
instead  of  mutilation  and  death,  for  killing  the  king’s 
deer.  Unfortunately,  in  1219,  the  able  Pembroke  died, 
and  England  quickly  relapsed  into  a state  of  disorder. 
Henry  had  placed  foreigners  in  all  the  principal  offices 
of  the  state,  to  the  great  disgust  of  his  own  people. 
The  pope,  too,  as  over-lord  of  England,  had  filled  the 
vacant  livings  with  foreign  priests,  and  had  even  de- 
manded a share  in  the  government.  The  king  and 
Hubert  de  Burgh,  the  new  Regent,  were  at  variance 
with  each  other,  and  both  at  times  with  the  pope.  But 
in  one  thing  king  and  pope  were  always  agreed,  in  the 
mutual  endeavor  to  wring  from  the  poverty-stricken 
people  their  last  farthing. 

Redress,  the  Condition  of  a Yote  of  Supplies.  In 

1225,  a great  council  was  summoned  to  consider  the 
question  of  supplies  to  the  crown.  A grant  was  made 
conditioned  on  a new  confirmation  of  the  Charter. 
From  this  time  the  practice  prevailed  of  making  a con- 
firmation of  the  Charter,  or  a redress  of  grievances,  the 
condition  of  a vote  of  money  to  the  crown.  Some  of 
the  most  precious  rights  now  enjoyed  by  the  English 
people  were  retained  or  acquired  in  this  way. 


HENRY  III. 


63 


Henry’s  Attempt  to  Overthrow  the  Charter,  In 

1227,  Henry,  being  twenty-two  years  of  age,  took  the 
reins  of  government  into  his  own  hands.  He  inaugu- 
rated his  full  assumption  of  power  by  an  attempt,  in 
the  following  declaration,  to  make  the  Great  Charter 
subordinate  to  the  royal  prerogative  : 

" Whenever  and  wherever,  and  as  often  as  it  may  be 
our  pleasure,  we  may  declare,  interpret,  enlarge  or 
diminish  the  aforesaid  statutes,  and  their  several  parts, 
by  our  own  free  will,  and  as  to  us  shall  seem  expedient 
for  the  security  of  us  and  our  land.” 

This  declaration  was  the  key-note  to  Henry’s  policy 
for  forty  years,  while  the  barons,  on  account  of  feuds 
among  themselves,  stood  idly  by.  The  history  of  the 
whole  period  is  but  a dreary  and  monotonous  record  of 
royal  recklessness  and  folly,  of  royal  beggary  and  extor- 
tion. The  king,  when  in  need  of  money,  would  swear 
on  his  honor  as  46  a man,  a Christian,  a knight,  and  a 
king,”  to  preserve  inviolate  the  provisions  of  the  Char- 
ter, and  the  next  moment,  when  his  wants  had  been 
supplied,  trample  them,  in  mere  wantonness,  under 
his  feet.  Under  the  royal  influence,  even  the  courts 
of  justice  became  but  a legalized  system  of  extortion 
and  robbery,  the  judges  on  the  circuits  compounding 
felonies  and  selling  justice  to  the  highest  bidder. 

Rebellion  of  the  Barons.  In  1258,  a crisis  was 
reached.  There  had  been  a failure  in  the  crops,  and  a 
famine  was  imminent.  Corn  sent  from  Germany  to 
relieve  the  general  distress,  was  seized  and  sold  by 
the  king ; and  being  still  in  want,  he  summoned  the 
barons  to  a great  council  at  Westminster.  Aroused  by 
outrage  and  united  at  last,  they  obeyed  the  summons ; 


64 


HENRY  III. 


but  they  came  at  the  head  of  their  men-at-arms.  As 
Henry  entered  the  great  hall  at  Westminster  and  looked 
upon  the  stern  array  of  mail-clad  barons,  whose  clank- 
ing swords  alone  broke  the  stillness,  he  asked  in  the  sud- 
denness of  his  alarm,  "Am  I a prisoner?”  "No,  you 
are  our  sovereign,”  was  the  answer  ; "but  your  foreign 
favorites  and  your  prodigality  have  brought  misery  upon 
the  realm,  and  we  demand  that  you  confer  authority 
upon  those  who  are  able  and  willing  to  redress  the 
grievances  of  the  public.”  Henry  was  powerless  to 
resist,  and  consented  to  a commission  of  twenty-four 
barons,  one-half  to  be  appointed  by  himself,  empowered 
to  act  in  behalf  of  the  realm.  But  all  attempts  at  a 
permanent  settlement  failed,  and  both  parties  finally 
prepared  for  war.  In  1264,  the  opposing  armies  met  on 
the  downs  of  Lewes.  The  royal  army  was  defeated, 
and  the  king  and  liis  gallant  son,  Prince  Edward,  taken 
prisoners. 

Simon  de  Montfort  and  the  House  of  Commons, 
A.  D.  1265.  The  kingdom  was  now  at  the  disposal  of 
the  barons.  The  ablest  man  among  them  was  Simon 
de  Montfort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  whose  brief  but  bril- 
liant career  furnishes  the  one  bright  page  in  the  black 
record  of  Henry’s  reign.  In  a Parliament,  summoned 
by  Montfort,  at  Westminster,  in  1265,  he  invited  rep- 
resentatives of  the  people,  two  knights  from  each 
county,  two  citizens  from  each  city,  and  two  burgesses 
from  each  borough  (anciently  a community  of  ten 
families,  now  a town)  to  take  their  seats  side  by  side 
with  prelates  and  barons.  This  was  the  first  House  of 
Commons.  As  from  the  tyranny  of  John  sprang  the 
Great  Charter,  the  corner-stone  of  English  liberty,  so 


IIENRY  III. 


65 


from  the  oppressions  of  Henry  rose  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, its  bulwark  and  defence. 

Evesham.  Prince  Edward,  having  escaped  from  cap- 
tivity, quickly  assembled  the  royal  forces,  won  the 
battle  of  Evesham,  and  placed  the  liberated  king  once 
more  on  the  throne.  Though  the  barons  were  beaten, 
and  the  noble  de  Montfort  slain,  no  attempt  was  made  to 
undo  their  one  great  work,  the  establishment  of  the 
right  of  the  people  to  representation  in  Parliament. 
Order  being  restored,  Prince  Edward  went  on  a Cru- 
sade, the  last  in  the  series,  in  1270.  In  two  years 
Henry  died,  and  the  same  day  the  nobles  took  the  oath 
of  fealty  to  the  absent  Prince.  In  two  years  more, 
King  Edward,  having  made  a ten  years’  truce  with 
the  Saracens,  returned  to  England,  and  was  formally 
crowned  at  Westminster. 

Edward  I.  1272  to  1307  — 35  years.  Plantagenet. 

Conquest  of  Wales.  Llewellyn,  Prince  of  Wales, 
had  repeatedly  refused  to  acknowledge  Edward  as 
his  feudal  superior.  In  1277,  an  English  army  was  sent 
into  Wales,  and  the  Prince,  deserted  by  most  of  his 
chieftains,  was  compelled  to  sue  for  peace  and  accept 
Edward’s  terms,  the  surrender  of  the  sovereignty  of 
his  country.  In  1282,  the  Welsh  people,  fired  by 
patriot  bards,  whose  stirring  songs  had  kept  alive  in 
their  hearts  the  love  of  liberty,  rose  in  rebellion  against 
their  English  rulers.  Edward  once  more  invaded  the 
country  at  the  head  of  an  irresistible  force,  and  Llew- 
ellyn being  early  slain  in  a skirmish,  the  Welsh  chief- 
tains quietly  submitted  and  the  country  was  formally 
annexed  to  England.  Edward  wisely  gave  the  Welsh 


66 


EDWARD  I. 


people  the  English  system  of  courts  and  laws,  and  for 
n hundred  years,  with  a single  exception,  they  remained 
at  peace.  Edward’s  queen,  who  had  accompanied  him 
on  the  march,  gave  birth,  in  the  castle  of  Caernarvon, 
to  a son,  some  twenty  years  afterwards  called  Prince  of 
Wales,  a title  still  given  to  the  eldest  son  of  the  reign- 
ing sovereign.  Returning  to  England,  Edward  devoted 
himself  to  the  administration  of  the  government.  He 
secured  the  adoption  of  a code  of  wise  and  wholesome 
laws,*  thereby  winning  in  history  the  name  of  the  Eng- 
lish Justinian. 

Arbitrary  Taxation  Forbidden.  By  far  the  most 
important  of  these  laws . was . parsed  in  the  year  1297, 
when  by  excessive  and  arbitrary  taxatibn,  Edward  had 
provoked  a rebellious  confederation  of  the  barons.  He 
was  compelled  to  assent  to  a new  confirmation  of  the 
charter,  and  the  addition  of  a clause  forbidding  the 
king  to  tax  the  people  without  the  consent  of  Parlia- 
ment. Edward  not  only  made  wise  laws,  but  he 
greatly  improved  the  courts,  f rendering  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice  more  sure  and  equal. 

* Among  these  were  laws  basing  more  thoroughly  than  ever  the  defence  of 
the  kingdom  on  an  armed  militia,  ever  at  the  immediate  call  of  the  king;  en- 
suring the  freedom  of  elections  against  menace  or  forcible  interference;  for- 
bidding judges  and  officers  receiving  rewards  for  official  services,  lawyers 
using  deceit  to  beguile  the  court,  persons  uttering  slanders  and  jurors  render- 
ing a false  verdict;  requiring  the  gates  of  walled  towns  to  be  kept  shut  from 
sunset  to  sunrise,  and  a watch  to  be  set;  ordering  every  man  to  cut  away  the 
bushes  and  undergrowth  on  his  own  land,  two  hundred  feet  on  each  side  of 
the  principal  roads,  to  make  an  ambush  by  highwaymen  difficult;  and  a statute 
for  London,  forbidding  armed  men  to  appear  in  the  streets,  or  taverns  to  sell 
ale  or  beer, after  Curfew. 

t The  ecclesiastical  courts  were  confined  to  purely  spiritual  matters.  The 
county  court  was  undisturbed,  but  by  the  appointment  of  “ Justices  of  the 
Peace,”  as  local  magistrates,  its  business  was  somewhat  limited,  and  the 
people  in  the  rural  districts  better  accommodated.  From  the  Court  of  Appeal 
sprang  the  Court  of  Chancery,  with  the  Chancellor  at  the  head,  a court  gov. 


EDWARD  I. 


67 


Beginning  of  the  Wars  with  Scotland.  The  King 
of  Scotland  having  died,  thirteen  claimants  appeared 
for  the  vacant  throne,  of  whom  Iiobert  Bruce  and  John 
Baliol  were  the  most  prominent.  Unable  to  settle 
peacefully  the  question  of  their  claims,  it  was  referred, 
in  1291,  to  the  arbitration  of  Edward  of  England.  Ed- 
ward decided  in  favor  of  Baliol,  on  condition  that  the 
latter  should  acknowledge  himself  a vassal  of  the  Eng- 
lish crown.  Edward’s  claim  to  superiority  was  based 
on  the  fact  already  stated  on  a previous  page,  that  Wil- 
liam, a Scottish  king  in  the  time  of  Henry  II.,  being 
taken  in  battle,  was  held  in  captivity  until  he  acknowd- 
edged  the  King  of  England  as  his  feudal  superior. 
Baliol  received  the  kingdom  at  the  hands  of  Edward, 
but  soon  rebelled  against  the  humiliations  imposed 
upon  him,  and  thence  arose  those  fierce  and  bloody 
wars  between  the  two  countries,  that  continued  through 
successive  reigns  to  desolate  the  border  lands  of  both. 
The  earlier  ballad  and  legend,  wild  and  weird  like  the 
Scotch  character  itself,  and  the  later  tale  and  song  with 
their  warp  of  fact  and  woof  of  fiction,  have  involved 
the  whole,  story  of  the  struggle  between  England  and 
Scotland  in  the  fascinations  of  romance. 

* Battle  of  Dunbar.  In  the  battle  of  Dunbar,  in  1296, 
the  Scots  suffered  a signal  defeat.  Edinburgh  was  be- 
sieged, Sterling  taken,  and  finally,  at  Montrose  Abbey, 
Baliol  surrendered  into  Edward’s  hands  all  right  and 
title  to  the  kingdom  of  Scotland.  The  Scottish  kings 
were  wont  to  be  crowned  at  Scone,  on  a fragment  of 

erned  by  the  principles  of  equity,  and  not  common  law,  and  designed  to  have 
jurisdiction,  when  the  technicalities  of  law,  and  the  inability  of  the  other 
courts  to  vary  from  fixed  methods  of  procedure,  prevented  the  administration 
of  exact  justice. 


68 


EDWARD  I. 


rock,  called  the  Stone  of  Destiny.  There  was  a 
Scotc  1 tradition  that  wherever  that  stone  might  be, 
there  the  Scots  would  reign.  By  Edward’s  order,  it 
was  taken  to  Westminster  Abbey,  then  just  completed, 
and  placed  beneath  the  Coronation  Chair,  in  which 
all  the  kings  of  England  are  crowned. 

William  Wallace.  But  Scotland  found  a champion 
in  the  patriot  William  Wallace.  Mustering  an  army 
of  stalwart  peasants,  he  put  to  flight  the  English  knights 
at  Stirling.  Castle  after  castle  fell  into  his  hands,  until 
all  Scotland  was  once  more  free  from  English  rule. 
He  pushed  his  victorious  arms  across  the  border  and 
ravaged  the  north  of  England.  The  war-like  Edward, 
who  had  been  abroad  while  these  events  were  occur- 
ring, now  returned,  and  putting  himself  at  the  head  of 
a large  force,  brought  Wallace  to  bay  at  Falkirk,  in 
1298.  The  latter  had  been  appointed  Guardian  of  the 
Realm  of  Scotland,  but  proud  Scottish  lords,  scorning 
to  serve  under  one  of  humble  birth,  forsook,  if  they 
did  not  betray  him,  at  Falkirk,  and  Wallace  was  utterly 
defeated. 

For  seven  years,  outlawed,  and  with  a price  upon 
his  head,  hiding  among  his  native  mountains,  he  waged 
a pitiless  war  on  the  English,  and  wras  then  basely 
betrayed  by  a Scotch  noble.  He  was  taken,  in  chains, 
to  London,  and  there  tried  as  a traitor,  with  a crown 
of  oak  leaves  upon  his  head,  to  indicate  that  he  w^as  king 
of  outlaws.  Being  condemned  to  death,  he  was  tortured 
and  executed  in  the  most  horrible  manner.  From  lowland 
moor  to  highland  glen,  from  peasant  cot  to  lordly 
castle,  sped  the  story  of  his  cruel  death.  What  Wal- 
lace living  failed  to  do,  Wallace  dead  achieved.  Scotch 


EDWARD  I. 


69 


jealousies  died.  The  fierce  resentment  that  united  all 
hearts  in  a stern  resolve  to  avenge  his  cruel  death, 
united  them  in  the  nobler  resolve  to  free  their  country 
from  the  hated  English  yoke. 

Robert  Bruce.  In  four  months  all  the  clans  were 
in  arms  under  their  second  champion,  Robert  Bruce. 
Edward,  bowed  with  years,  but  resolute  still,  once 
more  took  the  field.  But  he  sank  under  exertion  and 
excitement,  and  died  just  as  his  army,  at  Burgh-on- 
Sands,  came  in  sight  of  the  blue  hills  of  Scotland. 
In  his  dying  moments  he  enjoined  upon  his  son  to 
prosecute  the  war  with  vigor,  and  even  desired  that  his 
dead  body  should  be  carried  at  the  head  of  the  army 
as  it  marched. 

Character  of  Edward  I.  Edward  I.  was  a wise  legis- 
lator, a skilful  soldier,  and  a gallant  knight.  Though  a 
despot  in  disposition,  and  doggedly  tenacious  of  the 
royal  prerogative,  he  was  just  and  even  generous  to 
law-abiding  subjects.  To  others  he  was  severe  and 
even  cruel.  The  Jews  tampered  with  the  coinage, 
and  three  hundred  of  the  guilty  died  on  the  scaffold ; 
and  finally,  in  1290,  the  whole  Jewish  people,  number- 
ing sixteen  thousand  souls,  were  banished  from  the 
realm.  Ilis  natural  sternness  was  tempered  by  gentle- 
ness and  affection  in  his  domestic  relations,  but  he 
would  not  shield  from  the  consequences  of  his  crime, 
even  his  own  son,  who  once  went  to  prison  like  a com- 
mon felon.  Under  the  pressure  of  want,  Edward  at 
one  time  levied  money  contrary  to  the  Charter ; but, 
convinced  of  his  error,  he  acknowledged  it  in  tears,  in 
the  presence  of  his  Parliament,  and  reformed.  In  this 
reign  Parliaments  became  more  regular  and  met  per- 


70 


EDWARD  II. 


manently  at  Westminster,  but  as  yet  the  Commons  had 
no  voice  in  matters  of  legislation,  simply  voting  money. 

Edward  II.,  1307  to  1327  — 20  Tears.  Plantagenet. 

Character  of  Edward  II.  Edward  II.  was  weak, 
though  childishly  wilful,  and  utterly  destitute  of  the 
knightly  qualities  that  shone  so  brightly  in  his  father’s 
character.  He  had  neither  vigor  nor  virtue  enough,  to 
be  just  himself,  or  to  enforce  justice  among  his  people; 
and  much  less  did  he  rise  even  to  a faint  conception  of 
the  one  grand  purpose  of  his  father’s  life,  the  extension 
of  English  dominion  over  the  whole  island.  He 
had  but  a single  aim,  indulgence  in  sensual  pleasures. 

Piers  Gaveston.  The  first  five  years  of  Edward’s  reign 
were  spent  in  contentions  with  his  barons,  on  account 
of  one  Piers  Gaveston,  a dissolute  Gascon  knight, 
to  whose  corrupting  influence  he  had  wholly  sur- 
rendered himself.  One  of  Edward  the  First’s  dying 
injunctions  to  his  son  was,  never  to  recall  the  banished 
Gaveston.  This  injunction  was  forgotten  by  the  son, 
the  moment  the  father  was  dead ; and  the  recalled 
favorite  acquired,  besides  his  old  influence  over  Ed- 
ward, entire  control  of  the  government.  But  it  was 
Gaveston’s  insolent  manners,  and  his  stinging  witticisms 
on  the  barons,  quite  as  much  as  his  assumption  of 
authority,  that  won  for  him  their  cordial  hatred.  Twice 
by  force  of  arms  they  compelled  him  to  leave  the  king- 
dom, and  twice  the  infatuated  king  recalled  him.  He 
was  seized  by  the  barons  on  his  re-appearance  in  1312, 
and  thrown  into  Warwick  Castle,  whose  lord  he  had 
nick-named  the  " Black  Dog  of  the  Wood.”  After  a 


EDWARD  II. 


71 


form  cf  trial,  he  was  taken  to  Blacklow  Ilill,  a little  rise 
of  giound  a short  distance  from  the  castle,  near  the 
river  Avon,  and  there  beheaded. 

The  quarrel  between  the  king  and  the  barons  over 
the  worthless  knight  is  only  important  as  out  of  it 
came  an  advance  in  constitutional  liberty.  Parliament 
established  the  right  to  investigate  the  public  expendi- 
tures and  punish  bad  advisers  of  the  king. 

Bannockburn,  A.  D.  1311.  While  Edward  and  the 
barons  were  wasting  their  time  in  petty  strife,  the 
Scots  under  Bruce  were  gaining  their  independence. 
Linlithgow,  Roxburgh,  Ediubunrh  and  Perth  succcs- 
sively  fell  into  their  hands.  * 

Stirling  Castle  was  besieged,  and  its  governor,  under 
the  pressure  of  want,  agreed  to  surrender  on  a certain 
day,  the  Feast  of  St.  John,  if  not  relieved  by  the  Eng- 
lish. Edward,  roused  from  his  lethargy  by  the  critical 
state  of  affairs  at  Stirling,  hastily  gathered  an  army  of 
a hundred  thousand  men  and  pressed  forward  to  its 
relief. 

lie  was  met  at  Bannockburn  by  Bruce,  at  the 
head  of  thirty  thousand  Scots.  In  the  battle  that 
followed,  the  English  suffered  the  most  disastrous 
defeat,  considering  the  disparity  of  the  forces 
engaged,  to  be  found  in  the  history  of  English 
warfare.  Edward’s  treasure,  and  all  the  vast  material 


♦The  accounts  of  the  6ieges  of  castles  held  by  English  garrisons  are  full  of 
romantic  interest.  Linlithgow  was  taken  somewhat  after  the  manner  of 
ancient  Troy.  A Scotch  peasant  had  been  in  the  habit  of  supplying  the  gar- 
rison with  forage.  lie  came  one  day  with  a load  of  hay  in  which  Scotch  sol- 
diers were  concealed.  Having  crossed  the  drawbridge,  he  placed  his  load  in 
such  a position  that  the  gates  could  not  be  shut.  The  concealed  soldiers, sud- 
denly appearing,  held  the  gates  until  reinforcements  lying  in  ambush  camo 
lip, and  the  garrison  was  overpowered. 


72 


EDWARD  II. 


of  his  army,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Bruce,  while  his 
panic-stricken  soldiers  were  butchered  without  mercy. 
The  Scots  again  ravaged  the  northern  counties.  Fresh 
armies  were  raised  by  the  English,  but  little  was 
accomplished. 

After  the  battle  of  Bannockburn,  Edward  fell  under 
the  influence  of  two  new  favorites,  the  Spencers, 
father  and  son.  It  is  but  the  story  of  Gaveston 
repeated,  a brief  use  and  abuse  of  power,  a short 
but  desperate  struggle  with  the  enraged  barons,  and  a 
violent  death  at  their  hands. 

Queen  Isabella  in  France.  In  1325,  the  year 
before  the  fall  of  the  Spencers,  Queen  Isabella  had 
been  sent  by  Edward  to  the  court  of  her  brother, 
Charles  IV.  of  France,  to  arrange  terms  of  peace  be- 
tween the  two  kings.  She  accomplished  her  mission 
in  a manner  more  favorable  to  France  than  to  England, 
but  declined  to  return  at  Edward's  earnest  entreaty, 
pleading  her  fear  of  the  Spencers.  She  had  little  love 
for  her  husband,  and  had  formed  a violent  attachment 
for  Roger  Mortimer,  who  had  been  condemned  to  the 
Tower  on  account  of  his  enmity  to  the  Spencers,  but 
had  escaped  to  France.  He  became  the  chief  officer 
in  Isabella’s  household.  While  abroad,  the  Queen, 
wdio  was  accompanied  by  her  son  Edward,  Prince  of 
Wales,  visited  the  Court  of  William,  Count  of  Hainault, 
and  while  there  arranged  a marriage  contract  between 
the  Prince  and  Philippa,  daughter  of  the  Count. 

Deposition  and  Death  of  Edward.  In  1326,  with 
a small  force  furnished  by  the  Count,  Isabella  returned 
to  England,  and  at  once  raised  the  standard  of  revolt, 
ostensibly  to  overthrow  the  Spencers,  but  in  fact  to 


EDWARD  II. 


73 


gain  for  herself  and  Mortimer  the  supreme  power. 
She  was  hailed  as  a deliverer  by  all  classes,  and  soon 
had  an  overwhelming  force  at  her  command.  The  king, 
deserted  and  helpless,  embarked  for  the  Isle  of  Lundy, 
oif  Bristol  Channel,  but  was  driven  upon  the  Welsh 
coast  and  landed  at  Swansea.  lie  soon  surrendered 
himself  to  his  enemies,  and  was  hurried  like  a felon 
from  place  to  place,  and  finally  lodged  in  Berkeley 
Castle. 

Parliament,  in  1327,  declared  the  throne  to  be  vacant: 
and  thus  was  established  the  parliamentary  right  to  de- 
pose the  king.  The  young  prince  was  crowned  under 
the  title  of  Edward  III.  To  satisfy  the  feigned  scruples 
of  Isabella,  Parliament  extorted  from  the  captive  king 
a formal  abdication  of  the  throne.  Edward  never  left 
Berkeley  Castle.  Its  gloomy  walls  one  autumn  night 
rang  with  heart-rending  shrieks,  and  the  next  day  the 
distorted  features  of  the  dead  king  told  only  too 
plainly  the  tale  of  his  cruel  death.  A few  years  after 
this,  Mortimer,  when  about  to  expiate  his  crimes  on  the 
gallows,  confessed  that  he  sent  two  hired  assassins 
to  murder  the  hapless  king. 

— Edward  III.,  1327  to  1377  —50  years.  Plantagenet. 

The  Regency.  Edward  III.  became  a powerful 
monarch,  and  his  reign  was  one  of  the  longest  and 
most  brilliant  in  the  history  of  England.  Being 
crowned  at  the  early  age  of  fourteen,  a Council  of 
Regency,  composed  of  twelve  principal  lords,  was 
appointed  to  administer  the  government  during  the 
minority.  But  this  Council  being  controlled  by  Queen 


74 


EDWAUI)  III. 


Isabella  and  Mortimer,  the  real  power  still  remained 
in  their  hands. 

Treaty  of  Northampton.  The  Scots  under  James, 

Earl  of  Douglas,  continued  their  ravages  across  the 

border,  and  the  young  king  raised  an  army  and 

marched  against  them.  But  the  light-armed  and  well- 

mounted  Scots,  skilfully  avoiding  battle  and  eluding 

pursuit,  forced  Edward  to  retire  for  want  of  supplies. 

Finally,  in  1328,  by  the  Treaty  of  Northampton,  the 

independence  of  Scotland  was  acknowledged. 

Fall  of  Isabella  and  Mortimer.  Edward,  now 

eighteen  years  of  age,  resolved  to  take  the  reins  of 

government  into  his  own  hands.  Isabella  and  Morti- 
ce 

mer  occupied  a strong  castle  at  Nottingham.  Every 
night  the  keys  of  the  castle  gates  were  brought  to  the 
bed-side  of  the  suspicious  queen,  while  guards  were 
stationed  at  every  avenue  of  approach.  Under  the 
guidance  of  the  governor,  a small  but  trusty  band  of 
Edward’s  friends  entered  the  castle  at  night,  through  a 
subterranean  passage,  and  being  joined  by  Edward 
himself,  took  its  garrison  completely  by  surprise. 
Mortimer  was  seized  and  borne  away  , the  queen  piteously 
entreating  her  son  "to  spare  her  gentle  Mortimer.” 
From  this  moment,  Edward  was  king  in  fact  as  well 
as  name.  lie  summoned  a Parliament,  before  whom 
Mortimer  was  brought  charged  with  various  offences, 
including  the  murder  of  Edward  II.  He  was  pro- 
nounced guilty  and  hanged  on  an  elm  at  Tyburn,  in 
1330,  while  Queen  Isabella  was  consigned  to  life-long 
imprisonment  in  Castle  Risings.  She  lingered  twenty- 
seven  years  in  hopeless  captivity,  visited  once  a j^ear 
by  her  son,  the  king. 


q Bast 


OF 

IP  RAW  © 31 

and  Parts  of  the 

Adjacent  countries 

SCALE,  or  Ml  LES  ^ 


EDWARD  III. 


75 


Halidon  Hill.  Robert  Bruce,  the  heroic  old  king 
of  Scotland,  died  in  1321),  and  the  crown  descended 
to  David  his  son,  then  but  seven  years  of  age.  His- 
tory now  repeats  itself.  Edward  Baliol,  son  of  John 
Baliol  who  figured  in  the  reign  of  the  first  Edward, 
asserted  his  right  to  the  sovereign  power,  as  his  father 
had  done  before  him.  Defeating  the  forces  of  Bruce, 
near  Perth,  he  seized  the  powder,  while  Bruce  fled  to 
France.  To  gain  the  support  of  Edward  of  England, 
he,  too,  agreed  to  reign  as  a vassal  of  the  English 
crown.  The  indignant  Scots  sprang  to  arms  and  drove 
him  from  the  kingdom. 

o 

After  a show  of  reluctance,  on  account  of  the 
treaty  still  in  force  between  the  two  countries, 
Edward  pronounced  in  favor  of  Baliol.  Raising  a 
large  army,  he  marched  into  Scotland,  and,  by  one 
great  battle  at  Halidon  Ilill,  in  1333,  placed  Baliol 
again  upon  the  throne,  and  compelled  Bruce  once 
more  to  take  refuge  in  France.  The  very  name 
of  Baliol  was  hateful  to  the  Scots,  and  upon  the  with- 
drawal of  the  English  army,  he  was  a second  time 
driven  from  the  kingdom. 

The  “ Hundred  Years’  War  55  with  France.  The 
cause  of  Bruce  had  been  warmly  supported  by  the  King 
of  France,  and  Edward,  convinced  that  English 
supremacy  in  Scotland  could  never  be  made  secure,  so 
long  as  the  ships  and  soldiers  of  France  were  at  the  call 
of  the  Scots,  resolved  to  strike  a decisive  blow  at 
France  herself.  Two  convenient  pretexts  were  at 
hand,  the  encroachments  of  the  French  qn  the  English 
possessions  on  the  continent,  and  the  claim  of  Ed- 
ward to  the  French  throne  itself. 


76 


EDWARD  III. 


The  war  that  now  began  between  England  and  France 
is  known  as  the  6 4 Hundred  Years’  War,”  because,  with 
intervals  of  peace,  it  continued  for  a hundred  years. * 
Though  English  kings  won  a world-wide  renown,  and 
English  soldiers  covered  themselves  with  glory,  during 
its  progress,  it  ended  in  the  loss  to  the  English  people 
of  all  their  possessions  in  France,  except  Calais. 

Cressy,  A.  D.  1316.  The  first  conflicts  were  inde- 
cisive. Edward  gained  a great  naval  victory  over  the 
French,  off  Sluys,  in  the  English  Channel.  Landing 
some  years  afterwards  on  the  French  coast,  he  won  the 
famous  field  of  Cressy.  It  was  in  this  battle  that  Ed- 
ward, Prince  of  Wales,  called  the  Black  Prince,  from 
the  color  of  his  armor,  bravely  won  his  spurs,  entering 
upon  a career  that,  for  brilliancy  of  achievement  and  the 
splendid  exhibition  of  knightly  qualities,  finds  no  paral- 
lel in  the  annals  of  chivalry. 

Calais.  Five  days  after  the  battle  of  Cressy,  Ed- 
ward laid  siege  to  Calais,  a strongly  fortified  town 
on  the  seaboard,  opposite  the  cliffs  of  Dover,  which 
French  privateers  had  long  made  their  haunt,  while 
lying  in  wait  for  unguarded  English  traders.  In 


* The  ground  of  Edward’s  claim  will  be  seen  in  the  following  statement:— 
Philip  IV.,  predecessor  of  the  present  King  Charles  IV.,  of  France,  left  three 
sons  and  a daughter,  Isabella,  who  became  the  wife  of  Edward  II.  of  England. 
The  daughter  was  the  youngest.  The  sons  left  only  female  issue,  while  the 
daughter  left  male  issue,  Edward  III.  of  England.  Edward  was  thus  the  near- 
est male  heir.  It  was  maintained  by  the  French  that  Edward’s  claim  was 
barred  by  the  Salic  law,  a law  that  had  long  prevailed  in  France,  forbidding 
female  succession.  Edward  sought  to  evade  the  force  of  this  law  by  asserting 
that,  though  a female  could  not  inherit  the  power,  she  could  transmit  it  to  her 
male  descendants.  To  this  the  French  replied  that  a female  could  not  trans- 
mit a right  she  did  not  herself  possess.  The  French  practice  was  in  strict 
accordance  with  their  theory,  for  on  the  death  of  Philip’s  sons,  his  heirs  direct 
being  females,  or  the  issue  of  females,  were  passed  over,  and  the  crown  was 
given,  without  opposition,  to  Charles,  a nephew  of  Philip. 


EDWAKD  III. 


77 


twelve  mouths  it  was  starved  into  surrender,  but  the 
fortitude  of  its  inhabitants,  and  the  heroism  of  the  im- 
mortal six,  who  offered  their  lives  as  a ransom  for  the 
people,  will  challenge  the  admiration  of  all  ages. 
Though  Edward’s  army  had  been  greatly  wasted  during 
the  siege,  and  lie  had  threatened  to  put  the  whole  city 
to  the  sword,  on  account  of  its  obstinate  defence,  lie 
promised,  at  last,  to  spare  the  lives  of  its  inhabitants, 
if  six  principal  citizens,  bare-headed,  barefooted,  and 
with  halters  about  their  necks,  would  bring  to  him  the 
keys  of  the  town  and  castle,  and  deliver  themselves  up 
to  his  will.  Six  noble  men  offered  themselves  for  the 
sacrifice.  They  presented  to  Edward  the  keys,  and 
were  ordered  to  instant  death.  But  Edward’s  gentle 
Queen  Philippa,  falling  on  her  knees  before  him,  begged 
their  lives,  and  they  were  spared. 

Neville’s  Cross.  The  Scots,  who  were  in  alliance 
with  France,  taking  advantage  of  Edward’s  absence, 
appeared  in  large  force  in  the  north  of  England,  under 
the  command  of  Bruce,  their  king.  They  were  de- 
feated by  Philippa  (who  had  not  yet  joined  her  husband 
in  France),  in  the  battle  of  Neville’s  Cross,  Bruce  him- 
self being  taken  captive.  The  exhaustion  of  an  expen- 
sive foreign  war,  and  the  ravages  of  a fearful  plague, 
called  the  Black  Death,  forced  Edward  to  make  a tem- 
porary peace  with  France. 

Foictiers,  A.D.  1356.  But  war  was  renewed  in 
1355,  by  the  Black  Prince,  who  marched  from  his 
Duchy  of  Aquitaine  with  a small  but  well-appointed 
force,  and  penetrated  to  the  very  heart  of  France. 
When  about  to  return  laden  with  spoils,  he  found  him- 
self opposed,  a few  miles  from  the  city  of  Poictiers,  by 


78 


EDWARD  III. 


the  French  king  at  the  head  of  an  overwhelming  army. 
By  a wise  choice  of  ground  and  a skilful  disposition  of 
his  little  force,  he  inflicted  upon  the  French  host  a ter- 
rible defeat.  Among  the  prisoners  was  John,  the 
French  king,  who  was  brought  by  the  gallant  prince  to 
London.  Edward  now  held  two  captive  kings.  Bruce 
was  released  in  1357,  after  a period  of  eleven  years, 
and,  by  the  peace  of  Bretigny,  in  1360,  John  was  ran- 
somed for  three  million  gold  crowns.  Failing  to  raise 
the  ransom  money,  the  chivalric  king  returned  to  a 
life-long  captivity.  By  the  same  treaty,  Edward  relin- 
quished his  claim  to  the  French  crown,  holding  his 
French  possessions,  no  longer  as  a vassal,  but  as  an 
independent  sovereign.'  Up  to  this  period  his  career 
had  been  one  of  brilliant  success. 

Loss  of  French  Possessions.  A few  years  of  peace, 
and  disasters  came  thick  and  fast.  The  Black  Prince, 
broken  in  health  by  a fruitless  expedition  into  Spain , 
returned  to  England,  a mere  wreck  of  his  former  self ; 
and  the  war  being  renewed  by  the  French  king  at  a 
favorable  time,  one  after  another  of  the  English  pos- 
sessions on  the  continent  was  wrested  away,  until,  in 
1374,  nothing  remained  but  Calais,  Bordeaux  and 
Bayonne.  Spanish  fleets  had  all  but  destroyed  the 
navy  of  England,  and  swept  the  seas  of  her  commerce. 

Internal  Disorder.  At  home  were  misrule  and  dis- 
content. Edward’s  noble  consort,  Philippa,  having 
died,  the  enfeebled  old  king  fell  under  the  influence  of 
an  infamous  favorite,  one  Alice  Perrers.  John,  Duke 
of  Lancaster,  one  of  the  king’s  sons,  having  got  control 
of  the  government,  the  people  were  ground  down  with 
taxes,  the  courts  of  justice  overawed,  and  the  elections 


EDWARD  III. 


79 


corrupted.  The  Catholic  church  at  this  time  owned 
about  one-third  of  the  real  estate  of  England,  and  the 
taxes  for  church  purposes  exceeded  all  other  taxes  put 
together.  Although  more  money  was  annually  raised 
in  England  for  the  pope  than  for  the  king  himself,  the 
former  had  demanded  the  payment  of  the  tribute  money, 
1000  marks  a year,  promised  by  John  when  lie  made 
England  a fief  of  the  Papacy,  now  in  arrears  thirty- 
three  years. 

The  tJood  Parliament.  The  Good  Parliament,  sum- 
moned by  Edward  to  consider  this  claim,  promptly 
rejected  it,  and  then  proceeded  to  reform  the  many 
abuses  that  had  crept  into  the  affairs  of  the  state.  It 
was  nobly  supported  by  the  Black  Prince,  who,  though 
slowly  dying  with  disease,  devoted  his  last  remaining 
energies  to  the  work  of  reform.  Officers  of  the  crown 
were  impeached  and  removed,  and  the  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster, the  source  of  many  of  the  prevalent  abuses, 
was  forced  to  retire.  The  death  of  the  Black  Prince, 
closely  followed  by  the  return  of  the  Duke  to  power, 
and  the  election  of  a new  Parliament  in  his  interest, 
brought  the  work  of  reform  to  a sudden  close. 

John  Wickliffe.  In  one  thing  the  Duke  had  been  in 
harmony  with  the  Good  Parliament  and  the  people,  in 
resisting  the  demands  of  the  pope.  He  had  a power- 
ful ally  in  John  Wickliffe,  an  Oxford  professor,  who, 
beginning  with  a denunciation  of  the  exactions  and 
corruptions  of  the  Church  of  Borne,  ended,  as  we  shall 
see  in  the  next  reign,  in  a bold  attack  on  its  doctrines, 
thus  inaugurating  the  first  Deformation.  There  was 
little  in  common  between  the  Duke  of  Lancaster  and 
John  TTickliffe,  the  former  being  selfish  and  unscrupu- 


80 


EDWARD  III. 


lous,  caring  little  for  the  corruptions  of  the  Church, 
hut  coveting  its  wealth ; the  latter,  of  exalted  purity 
of  character,  opposing  the  Church  on  account  of  its 
abuses  and  assumptions.  Lancaster  is  said  to  have 
planned  a sweeping  confiscation  of  church  property. 

The  English  Language.  There  are  several  impor- 
tant landmarks  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  The 
Anglo-Saxon  had  always  been  the  language  of  the 
peasantry,  Latin  the  language  of  business  and  the 
graver  literature,  and  French  the  language  of  society 
and  the  lighter  literature.  During  this  reign  a marked 
change  took  place.  The  Anglo-Saxon,  with  an  admix- 
ture of  both  Latin  and  French,  was  slowly  becom- 
ing the  national  tongue.  The  writings  of  Wickliffe, 
sent  broadcast  over  the  land,  gave  both  shape  and 
impetus  to  the  movement.  Wickliffe  may  be  called 
the  morning  star  of  English  prose,  as  Chaucer  has  been 
of  English  poetry.  Towards  the  close  of  Edward’s 
reign,  the  English  language  was  taught  in  the  schools 
instead  of  French,  and  a statute,  passed  in  1357, 
required  its  use  in  the  courts  of  justice.  Even  French 
romances  began  to  be  translated  into  English. 

The  English  People.  There  had  always  existed 
feelings  of  hatred  and  jealousy  among  the  people  of 
the  different  races.  The  native  Briton  could  never 
forgive  his  Saxon  conqueror,  and  both  alike  detested 
the  proud  and  domineering  Norman.  The  reign  of 
Edward  witnessed  the  blending  of  these  discordant 
races  into  one  harmonious  people.  They  fought,  side  by 
side,  at  Cressy  and  Poictiers,  and  their  animosities 
melted  away  amidst  rejoicings  of  victory.  From  that 
time  they  looked  back  with  a common  pride  to  a glori- 


EDWARD  III. 


81 


ous  past,  and  forward  with  a common  hope  to  a more 
glorious  future. 

Change  in  the  Methods  of  Warfare.  A change  was 
gradually  taking  place  in  the  methods  of  warfare. 
Hitherto,  mail-clad  knights  had  been  the  main  reliance 
in  battle,  but  Edward,  following  the  example  of  William 
Wallace  at  Falkirk,  had  won  his  most  brilliant  cam- 
paigns with  English  archers.  At  Cressy  and  Poictiers, 
the  knights  of  France  were  first  thrown  into  confusion 
by  clouds  of  arrows  sped  with  unerring  aim  by  English 
bowmen.  It  is  said  that  cannon  were  first  used  on  the 
battle-field,  at  Cressy ; but  heavy  cannon,  throwing 
stones,  were  used  before,  for  siege  purposes. 

The  Two  Houses  of  Parliament.  Edward  had  in- 
creased the  number  of  towns  allowed  to  send  represen- 
tatives to  Parliament,  making  the  latter  so  large,  that  it 
was  found  necessary  to  divide  it  into  two  distinct  bodies, 
the  one  composed  of  lords  and  bishops,  called  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  the  other,  of  representatives  of 
towns  and  counties,  called  the  House  of  Commons. 
And  thus  was  perfected  the  legislative  branch  of  the 
government.  The  Witenagemot  of  the  Saxons  had 
developed  into  the  Great  Council  of  the  Normans,  and 
that,  first  into  the  single  Parliament  of  Earl  Simon, 
and  now  into  its  perfected  form  of  two  independent 
Houses.  From  this  moment,  the  Commons,  who  had 
been  overawed  in  the  presence  of  lords  and  bishops, 
assumed  a more  independent  character.  It  is  a signi- 
ficant fact,  in  this  connection,  that  Edward,  forced 
by  his  necessities  during  the  French  wars,  confirmed 
the  Great  Charter  thirteen  times. 


82 


EDWARD  III. 


Death  of  Edward.  Enfeebled  by  age,  and  over- 
whelmed by  the  disasters  that  had  befallen  him,  Ed- 
ward survived  the  Black  Prince  but  a year,  dying  in 
1377.  His  last  years  were  gloomy,  and  his  death 
peculiarly  sad , and  a striking  commentary  on  the  vanity 
of  human  glory.  As  the  end  drew  near,  lie  was  utterly 
forsaken.  Even  Alice  Perrers  snatched  a ring  from 
his  unresisting  finger,  and  fled.  At  the  last  momenta 
compassionate  priest  entered  the  silent  chamber,  and 
held  a crucilix  before  the  fast  glazing  eyes  of  the  dying 
king.  It  is  difficult  to  realize,  that  this  is  the  Edward 
who  was  the  very  prince  of  that  proud  race,  the  Plan- 
tagenets,  the  hero  of  the  French  wars,  and  the  pride 
of  England.  Chivalry  was  then  at  its  zenith,  and  Ed- 
ward’s court  had  been  Chivalry’s  capital.  Hither  gal- 
lant knights  had  been  wont  to  gather  from  all  parts  of 
Europe,  to  mingle  in  the  scenes  of  Feudal  splendor, 
that  constantly  dazzled  the  eyes  of  the  wondering 
people.  But,  whether  in  the  friendly  lists  of  the  tour- 
nament, or  the  deadly  shock  of  battle,  Edward’s 
plume  had  always  been  pre-eminent. 

Richard  II.,  1377  to  1399  — 22  years.  Plantagenet. 

The  Regency.  No  king  ever  came  to  the  English 
throne  more  heartily  welcomed,  or  left  it  less  regretted, 
than  Richard  II.  The  fact  that  he  was  the  son  of  the 
Black  Prince,  that  mirror  of  Chivalry  and  idol  of  the 
people,  opened  all  hearts  to  him.  He  was  handsome, 
but  effeminate,  a mere  lover  of  pleasure  and  royal  dis- 
play. His  retinue  numbered  ten  thousand  persons, 
and  its  passage  through  the  country  was  dreaded  little 


RICHARD  II. 


83 


less  than  that  of  ail  invading  army.  Being  hut  eleven 
years  of  age  when  he  inherited  the  crown,  a regency 
was  appointed. 

Causes  of  Wat  Tyler’s  Rebellion.  Four  years  after 
his  accession,  the  Peasants’  Revolt,  or  Wat  Tyler’s  Re- 
bellion, broke  out.  This  revolt  is  worthy  of  very  brief 
mention,  considered  alone  in  the  incidents  attending  it. 
It  had  none  of  the  " pomp  and  circumstance  of  war,” 
and  was  little  better  than  tumultuous  gatherings  of  ill- 
organized  mobs,  whose  subsidence  was  as  sudden  as 
their  uprising.  But  the  social  and  political  questions 
involved  lift  it  into  a plane  of  grave  importance.  It 
was  a revolt  founded  on  social  distinctions,  the  begin- 
ning of  an  irrepressible  conflict  between  the  poor  and 
humble  oppressed,  and  the  rich  and  noble  oppressor  ; 
of  an  antagonism  between  labor  and  capital,  that,  in  one 
form  or  another,  has  continued  unabated  to  this  day. 

Emancipation.  During  the  preceding  reigns,  the 
serfs  had,  in  various  ways,  gradually  risen  to  the  con- 
dition of  freemen.  The  work  of  emancipation  had  been 
hastened  by  the  necessities  of  the  lords  themselves, 
who,  to  maintain  the  pomp  and  splendor  of  Chivalry, 
expensive  even  in  time  of  peace,  but  doubly  so  in  time 
of  war,  resorted  to  every  artifice  to  raise  money.  It 
was  a ready  and  productive  way,  to  commute  the 
services  of  the  serfs  for  their  estimated  value  in  money. 
Edward  himself,  to  raise  funds  for  the  French  wars, 
sent  agents  to  all  the  royal  estates  to  sell  to  the  serfs 
their  freedom.  So  that  by  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  free  labor  had,  to  a considerable  extent,  taken 
the  place  of  slave  labor,  and  was  then  abundant  and 
cheap. 


84 


RICHARD  II. 


The  Black  Death.  In  1348,  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
III,  a terrible  plague,  called  the  Black  Death,  originat- 
ing in  Asia  and  traversing  the  continent  of  Europe, 
swept  England  as  with  the  besom  of  destruction. 
One-half  its  inhabitants  were  carried  off,  but  it  was 
especially  malignant  among  the  lower  classes.  At  its 
close,  labor  was  scarce  and  high,  and  as  it  naturally 
sought  the  best  market,  in  some  sections  harvests 
could  not  be  gathered  for  want  of  help. 

The  Statute  of  Laborers.  The  landowners  appeal- 
ing to  Parliament  for  relief,  an  Act,  called  the  " Statute 
of  Laborers,”  wras  passed,  re-establishing  the  old  low 
price  of  labor,  and  compelling  the  laboring  classes  to 
seek  employment  within  the  limits  of  their  own  par- 
ishes. This  virtually  restored  the  old  and  odious 
system  of  serfdom,  creating  the  most  intense  discon- 
tent among  the  peasantry.  They  gathered  in  large 
numbers  at  the  different  centres,  to  listen  to  the 
harangues  of  their  leaders  depicting  in  bitter  language 
the  wretched  condition  of  the  poor,  and  the  luxurious 
estate  of  the  rich.  By  the  close  of  Edward’s  reign,  the 
oppressed  peasantry  were  ripe  for  revolt. 

The  Breaking  out  of  the  Rebellion.  In  the  fourth 
year  of  Richard’s  reign,  a tax  of  one  shilling  was  im- 
posed on  every  person  in  the  kingdom,  above  fifteen 
years  of  age.  It  was  not  the  amount  of  the  tax,  but 
the  fact  that  the  poor  were  taxed  as  heavily  as  the 
rich,  that  kindled  the  smouldering  spark  into  a flame 
of  rebellion.  The  most  formidable  rising  took  place 
in  Kent,  where  a hundred  thousand  peasants  gathered 
under  Wat  Tyler,  and  taking  up  their  line  of  march 
for  London,  poured  into  the  city  in  a vast  disorderly 


RICHARD  II. 


85 


mass.  Many  excesses  were  committed,  but  the  fury 
of  the  multitude  was  chiefly  directed  against  those 
concerned  in  the  odious  tax  and  previous  oppressive 
legislation.  The  king,  who  at  first  had  taken  refuge 
in  the  Tower,  met  them  by  appointment  at  Mile-end, 
just  out  of  London.  During  the  conference,  Tyler 
placed  his  hand  on  the  dagger  at  his  side,  and  was 
instantly  stricken  down  by  one  of  the  king’s  attendants. 
The  lives  of  the  royal  party  were  in  imminent  peril,  for 
the  bows  of  the  enraged  insurgents  were  already  bent, 
when  the  king,  riding  hastily  forward,  exclaimed,  " Tyler 
was  a traitor ; I will  be  your  leader.”  They  quickly 
gathered  about  their  new  and  youthful  leader,  praying 
for  liberty  for  themselves  and  their  children.  This 
achievement  of  Richard’s  seems  almost  heroic,  and  is  all 
the  more  conspicuous  from  the  long  and  ignoble  career 
that  followed  it.  Richard  professed  to  yield  to  their 
prayers,  and  thirty  clerks  were  set  to  work  preparing 
and  distributing  free  papers.  The  pacified  insurgents 
began  to  break  up  and  return  home.  In  the  meantime 
the  nobles  were  assembling  their  forces  and  hastening 
to  the  support  of  the  king.  The  latter,  false  to  his 
word,  quickly  cancelled  all  the  free  papers  he  had  issued, 
and  caused  the  leading  rebels  in  all  the  towns  to  be 
tried  and  punished. 

Though  the  revolts  were  suppressed  and  the  peasants 
nominally  returned  to  a state  of  serfdom,  the  newly 
awakened  desire  for  personal  liberty  could  not  be 
extinguished,  and  the  work  of  emancipation  went  slow- 
ly but  surely  forward,  until,  in  a century  and  a half, 
serfdom  may  be  said  to  have  disappeared  from  England.  >4 


86 


RICHARD  II. 


Wiekliffe  and  the  First  Reformation.  The  Peas- 
ants’ revolt,  charged,  as  it  was,  by  Romanists,  to  the 
seditious  teachings  of  Wiekliffe  and  his  followers,  was 
a serious  blow  to  the  reformation.*  Wiekliffe  was  for- 
saken by  his  most  powerful  friends,  including  the  Dukts 
of  Lancaster  himself.  But  there  was  another  reason 
for  this  defection, — Wickliffe’s  extreme  views  in  regard 
to  some  of  the  tenets  of  the  church.  So  long  as  lie 
merely  exposed  its  corruptions,  he  was  applauded  by 
all  classes;  but  when  he  assailed  its  cardinal  doctrines, 
lie  lost  the  sympathy  of  all  good  Catholics.  It  was  in 
this  emergency  that  Wiekliffe  displayed  the  real  grand- 
eur and  versatility  of  his  genius.  Instead  of  the 
scholarly  arguments  in  classic  Latin  he  had  hitherto 
addressed  to  the  great  and  learned,  he  now  directed  his 
appeals  in  plain  Anglo-Saxon  to  the  masses  of  the  Eng- 
lish people.  Pamphlet  after  pamphlet  against  both  the 
doctrines  and  the  practice  of  the  church,  issued  from 

* The  teachings  of  some  of  the  leaders,  and  so  the  tendency  of  the  times, 
are  clearly  indicated  in  the  following  sentiments,  attributed  to  John  Dali, 
the  “ mad  priest  of  Kent”:— “Good  people,  things  will  never  go  well  in  Eng- 
land so  long  as  goods  be  not  in  common,  an  1 so  long  as  there  be  villains 
(simply  vassals)  and  gentlemen.  By  what  right  are  they,  whom  we  call 
lords,  greater  folk  than  we?  On  what  grounds  have  they  deserved  it ? Why 
do  they  hold  us  in  serfage?  If  we  all  came  of  the  same  father  and  mother,  of 
Adam  and  Eve,  how  can  they  say  or  prove  that  they  are  better  than  we,  if  it 
be  not  that  they  make  us  gain  for  them,  by  our  toil,  what  they  spend  in  their 
pride?  They  are  clothed  in  their  velvet  and  warm  in  their  furs  and  their 
ermines,  while  we  are  covered  with  rags.  They  have  wine  and  spices  and 
fair  bread,  and  we  eat  oat-cake  and  straw  and  water  to  drink.  They  havo 
leisure  and  tine  houses.  We  have  pain  and  labor,  the  rain  and  the  wind  in 
the  fields.  And  yet  it  is  of  us  and  of  our  toil  that  these  men  hold  their  state.” 
The  following  couplet  is  also  attributed  to  Ball : — 

“ When  Adam  delved  and  Eve  span, 

Who  was  then  the  gentleman  ? ” 

It  is  hardly  to  be  wondered  at,  that  multitudes  of  ignorant  men,  bitterly  con- 
scious of  their  own  wretchedness  and  the  sumptuous  estate  of  their  masters, 
both  equally  undeserved,  in  their  mind3,  should  enlist  in  an  enterprise  that 
promised  to  make  them  all  more  equal. 


RICHARD  II. 


87 


his  prolific  pen,  and  was  sent  broadcast  over  the  land. 
An  order  of  preachers,  called  the  Simple  Priests,  was 
instituted  to  disseminate  his  doctrines.  Such  progress 
was  made,  that  "every  other  man  you  met  was  a Lol- 
lard,” * to  use  the  bitter  language  of  a careful  observer 
of  the  times.  The  crown,  at  last,  came  to  the  aid  of 
the  church;  WickliiTe  was  banished  from  Oxford, 
and  his  writings  condemned  as  heretical  and  ordered 
to  be  burned.  Retiring  to  Lutterworth,  he  devoted 
his  energies  to  the  last  and  grandest  work  of  his  life, 
the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  English.  December 
30th,  1384,  he  had  a stroke  of  paralysis,  while  attending 
mass  in  the  parish  church,  and. passed  peacefully  away 
the  next  day. 

Otterburn  and  Chevy  Chase.  There  is  little  of 
interest  in  the  foreign  relations  of  this  reign.  The 
border  lands  of  both  England  and  Scotland  were 
wasted  by  hostile  incursions.  In  1388,  occurred  the 
battle  of  Otterburn,  a mere  border-fight  between  two 
hostile  noblemen,  Percy  and  Douglas,  and  their  retain- 
ers, but  made  forever  memorable  by  that  celebrated 
ballad,  "Chevy  Chase.” 

Chaucer.  In  the  reigns  of  Edward  III.  and  Richard  II. 
lived  Chaucer,  the  “ Morning  Star  of  English  poetry,” 
whose  “ Canterbury  Tales,”  the  most  famous  of  his  works, 
is  still  read  with  delight.  Thirty  pilgrims  from  all  classes 
in  society  are  represented  as  travelling  together  from 
London  to  Canterbury,  to  visit  the  shrine  of  St. 
Thomas,  and  whiling  away  the  tedium  of  the  journey 


* The  name  Lollard,  derived  from  the  old  German  lollen  or  lullen,  to  sing , 
was  first  applied  to  the  Reformers  as  an  epithet  of  derision,  from  their  prac- 
tice of  singing  hymns  in  their  meetings. 


88 


RICHARD  II. 


by  telling  stories,  which  furnish  the  most  accurate 
picture  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  times  that 
has  come  down  to  us. 

Tyranny  of  Richard.  Richard  was  in  a constant 
quarrel  with  his  uncles  and  guardians.  When  twenty- 
two  years  of  age,  he  assumed  entire  control  of  the 
government.  After  reigning  a few  years  with  moder- 
ation and  justice,  he  became  more  despotic  than  any 
of  his  predecessors.  By  a cunningly  devised  statute, 
granting  him  a life  income,  and  placing  the  legislative 
power  in  the  hands  of  a select  number  of  lords  and 
burgesses,  Parliament  was  virtually  abolished.  Though 
the  king  now  seemed  more  secure  in  the  possession  of 
power  than  ever,  his  downfall  was  near  at  hand. 

Deposition  of  Richard.  A personal  quarrel  having 
arisen  between  two  young  noblemen,  an  appeal  was 
made  to  64  wager  of  battle.”  On  the  day  appointed  for 
the  contest,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  multitude  gath- 
ered to  witness  it,  Richard  banished  both  from  the 
kingdom,  and  soon  after  seized  the  estates,  to  which 
one  of  them,  Henry  Bolingbroke,  his  own  cousin, 
had  fallen  heir.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence 
of  the  king  in  Ireland,  Henry  landed  at  Ravenspur, 
in  Yorkshire,  and  raised  the  standard  of  revolt.  His 
twenty  followers  increased  to  sixty  thousand  fighting 
men  by  the  time  he  reached  London. 

Richard  hastened  back  to  England,  only  to  fall  into 
Henry’s  hands,  sufler  dethronement  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  disappear  within  the  walls  of  the  Tower. 
With  Richard,  end  the  Plantagenet  kings,  on  the 
whole  an  able  though  a tyrannical  race.  But  the  worst 
of  these  kings  were  the  best  for  England  in  the  end, 


RICHARD  II. 


89 


for  with  intolerable  tyranny  came  rebellion,  and  ulti- 
mate relief.  Rebellion  founded  in  a just  cause  does 
not  often  end  in  mere  bloodshed  and  anarchy,  but  in  a 
permanent  advance  in  justice,  liberty,  and  law. 


CHAPTER  VI 


House  of  Lancaster,  1399  to  1161  — 62  years. 


HENRY  IV.,  Bolingbroke.  I HENRY  VI.  of  Windsor. 

HENRY  V.  of  Monmouth.  I 

Henry  IT.,  1399  to  1413  — 14  years. 

Henry’s  Title.  Henry  IT.  gained  the  crown  by  his 
prowess.  Conscious  that  his  title*  was  defective,  and 
his  possession  of  power  precarious,  he  sought  to  win 
to  his  support  those  most  powerful  elements  in  the 
State,  the  nobility  and  the  church.  To  the  nobility, 
flushed  with  pride  at  the  memories  of  Crcssy  and  Poio 
tiers,  but  burning  with  shame  at  the  loss  of  Aquitaine, 
he  held  out  the  gains  and  the  glory  of  another  French 
campaign.  To  the  church,  fully  conscious  of  the 
steady  growth  of  reformed  ideas,  especially  among  the 

*To  explain The  four  eldest  sons  of  Edward  III.  were  Edward,  the  Clack 
Prince;  Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence;  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  c f Lancaster;  and 
Edmund,  Duke  of  York.  Edmund,  Earl  of  March,  was  descended  from  Lionel 
t he  second,  and  Henry  IV'.,  from  John  of  Gaunt,  the  third  son  of  Edward  III., 
so  that  when  the  eldest  branch  of  the  royal  family  became  extinct,  as  it  did  at 
the  death  of  Richard  II.,  son  of  the  Black  Prince,  the  crown  belonged  of  right 
to  the  Earl  of  March,  the  representative  of  the  second  branch.  This  usurpa- 
tion of  Ilenry  IV.  was  all  the  more  glaring,  since  it  really  occurred  before  the 
death  of  Richard  II.,  and  it  led,  some  sixty  years  later,  in  the  reign  of  Ilenry 
VI.,  to  a series  of  wars,  called  the  “Wars  of  (lie  Roses.”  One  other  fact  ought 
to  be  mentioned  in  this  connection.  Shortly  after  this  usurpation,  the  second 
and  fourth  branches  of  the  royal  family  were  united  by  the  marriage  of  their 
two  surviving  representatives,  Anne,  and  Richard  of  Cambridge.  Richard, 
Duke  of  York,  the  issue  of  this  marriage,  was  the  one,  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VI.,  to  press  the  claims  of  his  house  to  the  throne. 


IIENRY  I Y. 


91 


masses,  he  promised  persecution  of  the  reformers. 
Incessant  domestic  troubles  prevented  his  renewing  the 
war  with  France,  but  his  promise  of  persecution  was 
fulfilled  with  terrible  fidelity. 

The  First  Martyr  at  tlie  Stake.  By  an  Act  of  Par- 
liament, called  the  64  Statute  of  Heretics,”  the  bishops 
were  empowered  to  imprison  all  writers,  teachers,  and 
preachers  of  heresy,  and,  on  their  refusal  to  abjure,  to 
hand  them  over  to  the  civil  authorities  to  be  burned. 
William  Salter,  a London  preacher,  was  the  first  mar- 
tyr at  the  stake.  Being  condemned  by  the  bishops,  ho 
was  handed  over  to  the  civil  authorities  aud  burned,  in 
accordance  with  the  statute,  in  1401. 

Henry  IV.  has  the  unenviable  reputation  of  being 
the  first  king  of  England  to  impose  on  his  subjects, 
by  statute,  the  penalty  of  death,  and  that,  the  awful 
death  by  fire,  solely  on  account  of  their  religious  belief. 
And  thus  was  inaugurated  the  system  of  horrible  intol- 
erance that  blackens,  for  so  long  a period,  the  page  of 
English  history,  of  which  Catholics  and  Protestants 
were  alike  guilty,  and  whose  only  palliation  is  the 
spirit  of  the  age.  To  the  prayer  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  that  the  cruel  statute  might  be  repealed  or 
mitigated,  Henry  replied  that  6 6 he  wished  one  more 
severe  had  been  passed,”  and  gave  a terrible  proof  of 
his  sincerity  by  immediately  signing  the  death  warrant 
of  another  reformer. 

Revolt  in  Behalf  of  Richard  II.  Henry’s  reign  wit- 
nessed a constant  succession  of  revolts.  Three  of 
these  will  be  noticed.  The  first  was  in  behalf  of  King 
Richard,  who  was  rumored  to  have  escaped  from  con- 
finement, and  to  be  still  living  in  concealment  in  Scot- 


92 


HENRY  IV. 


land.  This  was  quickly  suppressed,  and  in  less  than  a 
month  a report  was  current  that  Richard  had  died  at 
Castle  Pontefract.  His  body  was  even  brought  to 
London  and  exposed  to  the  public  gaze,  that  all  might 
see  that  he  was  really  dead.  Strange  and  conflicting 
stories  were  told  of  the  manner  of  his  death,  but  nothing 
is  positively  known.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  con- 
signed by  Parliament  to  an  unknown  dungeon,  and 
to  have  died  a violent  death,  at  the  instigation  of  Henry 
himself. 

Revolt  of  the  Welsh.  Another  revolt  broke  out  in 
Wales,  under  Owen  Glendower,  who  claimed  descent 
from  the  royal  line  of  Llewellyn  and  the  ancient  Britons. 
As  in  the  times  of  Edward  1. , patriot  bards,  journeying 
from  place  to  place  with  song  and  story  of  the  early 
heroes  of  Welsh  history,  fired  the  Welsh  heart  anew 
with  its  old  love  of  liberty.  Glendower,  being  de- 
feated in  the  open  field,  retired  to  the  fastnesses  of 
Snowdon,  and  throughout  Henry’s  reign  defied  the 
whole  power  of  England.  What  became  of  him  was 
never  known.  He  lived  for  some  time  after  Henry  V. 
came  to  the  throne,  a wanderer  and  an  outlaw,  refusing 
all  overtures  of  peace,  and  making  his  home  in  hidden 
caves  among  his  native  hills.  A cave  still  called 
" Owen’s  Cave  ” is  to  be  seen  on  the  coast  of  Merioneth. 

Revolt  of  the  Percies.  But  the  insurrection  most 
dangerous  to  Henry’s  throne  suddenly  broke  out  under 
the  Percies,  who  had  hitherto  been  its  most  powerful 
supporters.  The  cause  of  their  defection  is  not  clear. 
It  may  have  been  Henry’s  inability  to  pay  the  expenses 
of  their  previous  campaigns  in  his  behalf,  or  his  un- 
willingness to  ransom  the  elder  Mortimer,  Hotspur’s 


IIEXRY  IV. 


93 


brother-in-law,  who  was  a prisoner  to  Glendower ; hut 
its  declared  object  was  to  place  upon  the  throne  the 
Earl  of  March,  whom  Henry  held  as  a state  prisoner  at 
Windsor.  They  were  assisted  by  Glendower  and 
Douglas,  each  at  the  head  of  a band  of  his  country- 
men. Henry  gained  a complete  victory  over  all  these 
foes  at  Shrewsbury,  in  1403,  Hotspur,  the  younger  Percy, 
being  killed  on  the  field  of  battle.  The  elder  Percy  per- 
ished in  a subsequent  revolt. 

The  Poet-King  of  Scotland.  Prince  James,  a youth 
of  twelve,  and  heir  to  the  Scottish  throne,  had  embarked 
for  France,  to  escape  the  perils  that  menaced  the  royal 
family  of  Scotland.  His  ship  was  taken  by  an  English 
cruiser,  and  the  young  prince  remained  a state  prisoner 
in  England  for  nearly  nineteen  years,  two  of  which 
were  spent  in  the  Tower,  and  sixteen  in  the  Keep  of 
Windsor  Castle.  He  was  provided  with  good  instruct- 
ors, and  became  the  famous  " Poet-king  of  Scotlaud.” 
When  released,  he  assumed  the  crown  to  which  he  had 
fallen  heir,  and  made  one  of  the  noblest  of  Scottish 
kings.  He  married  Lady  Joanna  Beaufort,  an  English 
princess,  to  whom  he  had  become  attached  while  in 
prison. 

Henry’s  Troubles.  Henry  lived  in  constant  dread  of  • 
the  Lollards,  who  wrere  known  to  be  active  in  foment- 
ing insurrections.  He  was  conscience-smitten,  too, 
it  is  said,  at  the  part  he  had  taken  in  their  perse- 
cution, as  well  as  at  the  means  he  had  used  to  attain  to 
power.  Forced  to  be  ever  on  the  alert  against  the 
friends  of  the  dead  Richard  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
living  Mortimer  on  the  other;  morbidly  jealous  of  the 
growing  popularity  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  in  con- 
stant fear  lest  the  latter  should  snatch  the  crown  from 


94 


HENRY  IV. 


his  head  ; distressed  at  the  Prince’s  wild  and  reckless 
conduct;  and  shattered  in  mind  and  body  by  epileptic 
fits  to  which  he  was  subject,  no  wonder  he  grew 
morose  and  unpopular  towards  the  end  of  his  reign, 
and  was  hurried  prematurely  to  his  grave.  He  died  in 
a fit,  while  praying  before  the  shrine  of  St.  Edward’s  at 
Westminster.  " Uneasy  lies  the  head  that  wears  a 
crown,”  was  Shakspeare’s  sage  reflection  on  the 
stormy  years  of  Henry’s  reign. 

- Henry  Y.,  1413  to  1422  — 9 years.  Lancaster. 

The  Wise  Beginning  of  Henry’s  Reign.  The  reign  of 
Henry  V.  was  short  but  brilliant,  happily  disappoint- 
ing those  who  feared  that  the  reckless  prince  would 
make  a reckless  king.  Calling  together  his  old  com- 
panions in  folly,  he  told  them  of  his  purpose  to  change 
his  life,  and  forbade  them  to  enter  his  presence  until 
they  should  follow  his  example  and  reform.  In  proof 
of  his  sincerity  as  well  as  wisdom,  he  selected  as  his 
principal  advisers  in  the  government,  men  of  known 
integrity  of  character.  Among  them  was  Gascoigne, 
who,  as  Chief  Justice,  once  sent  Prince  Henry  himself 
to  prison,  for  interfering  with  the  course  of  justice. 
Several  just  and  noble  acts,  at  the  very  outset  of  his 
career,  did  much  to  disarm  the  enemies  of  his  house. 
He  pacified  the  York  family  by  setting  free  the  long 
imprisoned  Earl  of  March,  and  by  giving  to  the  bones 
of  Richard  II.  a truly  royal  burial  among  the  kings  of 
England  at  Westminster.  He  gained  the  support  of 
the  powerful  family  of  the  Percies,  by  restoring  to  them 
their  forfeited  estates. 


IIEXRY  V. 


95 


Suppression  cf  the  First  Reformation.  Henry’s 
attention  was  early  called  to  the  Lollards.  Their  doc- 
trines had  been  gradually  spreading,  during  the  preced- 
ing reign,  not  only  in  England,  but  on  the  continent. 
John  IIuss,  rector  of  the  University  of  Prague,  had 
become,  through  the  influence  of  Wickliflfe’s  writings, 
a convert  to  Lollardism,  which  he  openly  preached, 
until  silenced  at  the  stake. 

The  Catholic  clergy,  early  i:i  this  reign,  saw  the 
necessity  of  acting  with  more  vigor  against  the  "new 
heresy,”  and  marked  as  their  first  victim,  Sir  John 
Oidcastle,  the  leader  of  the  Lollards  in  England,  whose 
castle  they  had  made  a place  of  refuge. 

The  king,  inspired  by  an  old  friendship,  sought  to 
save  him  from  death;  but  Oidcastle,  refusing  to  recant, 
was  cast  into  the  Tower,  and,  after  trial  and  condem- 
nation by  the  prelates,  was  turned  over  to  the  civil 
authorities  to  be  burned.  TIiq  king  again  interposed, 
granting  a respite  of  fifty  days,  during  which  Old- 
castle  made  his  escape,  and  planned,  so  it  was  said,  and 
so  the  king  believed,  an  immediate  rising  of  the  Lol- 
lards. Henry  at  once  took  decided  ground  against 
the  Reformation,  and  the  most  violent  persecution 
followed.  The  severest  statutes  were  enacted,  com- 
manding the  arrest  of  all  persons,  even  if  suspected 
of  heresy,  and  entailing  forfeiture  of  estate  and  blood 
on  all  convicted.  Oidcastle  and  many  others  perished, 
and  the  first  Reformation,  in  all  that  was  outward  and 
visible,  was  soon  at  an  end.  Elsewhere  allusion  has 
been  made  to  the  decline  of  the  Reformation  among  the 
influential  classes,  on  account  of  its  connection  with 
the  "Peasants’  Revolt.”  A word  more  seems  proper 


HENRY  V. 


90 

before  leaving  the  subject.  Some  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Reformation,  lacking  the  singleness  of  purpose 
that  inspired  its  founder,  Wickliffc,  sought,  as  we 
have  seen,  to  bring  within  its  sweep  the  removal  of 
social  distinctions  and  the  equalization  of  property, — 
our  modern  communism.  At  the  time  of  its  suppres- 
sion, it  also  rested  under  the  odium  of  conspiring  to 
subvert  the  government.  The  Reformation,  branded 
on  the  one  hand  as  communistic,  and  so,  dangerous  to 
society;  on  the  other  as  revolutionary,  and  so,  destruc- 
tive to  public  order,  gradually  arrayed  against  itself  not 
only  the  rich  and  powerful,  but  also  the  more  thought- 
ful and  conservative.  Outwardly,  the  Reformation 
ceased  to  exist,  but  in  the  hearts  of  many  there  was 
all  the  while  taking  root  a simpler  and  a purer  faith, 
based  on  the  open  Bible  that  Wickliffe  had  put  into 
their  hands.  As  Knight  has  beautifully  said,  "Out  of 
Wickliffe’s  rectory,  at  Lutterworth,  seeds  were  to  be 
borne  upon  the  wind  which  would  abide  in  the  earth 
till  they  sprang  up  into  the  stately  growth  of  other 

centuries.”* 

% 


♦Thirty  years  after  Wickliffe’s  death,  and  in  the  early  part  of  Henry’s  reign, 
the  Council  of  Constance,  the  same  that  condemned  John  Hubs,  issued  a 
decree  that  Wickliffe’s  remains  should  be  disinterred  and  burned.  This  was 
done,  and  his  ashes  were  cast  into  a little  brook  that  runs  past  Lutterworth, 
into  the  Avon.  The  Avon  leads  into  the  Severn,  the  Severn  into  a narrow  sea, 
and  the  sea  into  the  ocean.  In  the  following  beautiful  lines  the  poetic  fancy  of 
Wordsworth  makes  the  scattering  of  Wickliffe’s  ashes  an  emblem  of  the 
spreading  of  his  doctrine:  — 

“As  thou  these  ashes,  little  brook,  wilt  bear 
Into  the  Avon— Avon  to  the  tide 
Ot  Severn— Severn  to  the  narrow  seas— 

Into  main  ocean  they— this  deed  accurst, 

An  emblem  yields  to  friends  and  enemies, 

Ilow  the  bold  teacher’s  doctrine,  sanctified 

By  truth,  shall  spread  throughout  the  world  dispersed.” 


IIENRY  Y. 


5)7 


Renewal  of  the  “Hundred  Years’  War.”  During  the 
reigns  of  Richard  II.  and  Henry IV.,  there  had  been 
an  intermission  in  the  "Hundred  Years’  War”  with 
France.  It  was  renewed  by  Henry  V.,  a year  after  he  be- 
came king,  by  a revival  of  the  old  claim  to  the  French 
throne.  The  time  was  a favorable  one.  The  French 
King,  Charles VI.,  was  insane,  and  his  son,  the  Dau- 
phin, too  young  to  rule  ; while  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy 
and  Orleans  had  involved  the  nation  in  a bloody  war 
to  decide  which  should  be  regent  during  the  Dau- 
phin’s minority.  Henry  crossed  the  channel  and  cap- 
tured Harfleur,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  but  with 
a loss,  by  sickness  and  death,  of  two-thirds  of  his 
army.  Against  the  advice  of  his  nobles,  he  formed 
the  daring  purpose  of  marching  through  the  country  to 
Calais,  following  the  old  route  of  Edward  III.  He 
had  about  ten  thousand  men.  The  French  factions, 
startled  at  the  new  danger,  ceased  their  fratricidal 
strife,  and  prepared  to  meet  the  common  foe. 

Agincourt,  A.  B.  1115.  The  French  army,  esti- 
mated at  one  hundred  thousand  men,  planted  itself 
directly  across  Henry’s  path,  near  the  village  of  Agin- 
court.  The  hostile  armies  joined  battle  about  noon, 
October  25th.  In  three  hours,  the  battle  won  added 
new  glory  to  English  arms,  and  fresh  laurels  to  her 
kings.  Considering  all  the  circumstances  of  the  day, 
it  was  the  most  brilliant  victory  English  soldiers  ever 
gained  over  those  of  France. 

Agineourt  at  once  took  its  place  iu  history  by  the 
side  of  Cressy  and  Poictiers,  but  outshone  them  both  ; 
Cressy  in  the  fearful  odds  against  which  the  English 
contended,  and  in  the  brilliant  personal  achievements 


<J8 


HENRY  Y. 


of  England’s  king;  Poictiers,  in  the  amazing  fortitude 
with  which  that  little  band  of  sick  and  starving  men 
encountered  the  flower  of  the  chivalry  of  Prance. 
Seven  princes  of  the  blood,  above  a hundred  noble- 
men, and  eight  thousand  knights,  fell  on  the  side  of 
France  that  day. 

Henry  then  made  his  way  unopposed  to  Calais,  and 
soon  after  crossed  the  channel  to  England.  What  a 
joyful  welcome  the  English  people  gave  their  warrior- 
king  when  he  returned  from  his  brilliant  campaign  ! 
They  rushed  into  the  water,  as  he  neared  the  land,  and 
bore  him  on  their  shoulders  to  the  shore.  Throngs  of 
delighted  people  went  out  to  meet  him  from  all  the 
towns,  strewing  flowers  in  his  path.  His  entrance  to 
London  finds  no  parallel  except  in  the  magnificent  Tri- 
umphs the  people  of  ancient  Rome  were  wont  to  give 
their  returning  victors. 

Siege  of  Rouen.  All  attempts  at  a permanent  peace 
were  futile,  and,  in  1417,  Henry  again  entered  France 
with  a well-appointed  force  of  forty  thousand  men. 
Towns  and  castles  surrendered  at  his  summons,  or  fell 
before  his  assaults.  The  siege  of  Rouen  lasted  six 
months.  Its  inhabitants,  variously  estimated  at  from 
one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  thousand,  refus- 
ing to  open  their  gates,  were  at  last  reduced  to  the 
most  dreadful  extremities.  "War,”  said  Henry,  "has 
three  handmaidens,  Fire,  Blood  and  Famine,  and  I 
have  chosen  the  meekest  maid  of  the  three.”  And 
while  the  merciless  king  was  slowly  drawing  his  lines 
closer  around  the  devoted  city,  this  meek  but  pitiless- 
handmaiden,  Famine,  was  executing  her  horrible  com- 
mission within  its  Avails.  One  half  its  inhabitants  had 


HENRY  V. 


99 


perished,  and  the  survivors,  in  despair,  had  resolved  to 
burn  the  city  and  die  in  battle  before  its  walls,  when 
Henry,  fearful  that  Fire  and  Blood  would,  at  the  last, 
snatch  from  his  hands  the  coveted  prize,  offered  them 
terms  of  capitulation. 

Conquest  of  France  and  Treaty  of  Troyes.  An 

event  soon  happened  that  hastened  and  completed  the 
conquest  of  France.  The  Duke  of  Burgundy  was  as-  . 
sassinated  in  the  very  presence  of  the  Dauphin  him- 
self, and  probably  with  his  connivance.  The  Duke’s 
son,  Philip,  in  revenge,  allied  himself  with  Henry,  and 
the  whole  Burgundian  party  threw  itself  into  the  scale 
against  the  Dauphin.  A treaty  was  made  at  Troyes,  in 
the  presence  of  the  king  and  queen  of  France,  in  1420, 
bestowing  on  Henry  the  hand  of  Princess  Catherine, 
and  securing  to  him  the  regency  of  France  during  the 
life  of  its  maniac  king,  and  its  sovereignty  at  his  death. 
The  States-General  solemnly  ratified  the  treaty.  While 
engaged  in  bringing  the  kingdom  to  order,  in  the  very 
prime  of  life  and  at  the  height  of  his  power  and  glory, 
Henry  was  attacked  by  an  incurable  disease,  and  died, 
August  21st,  1422.  He  left  an  infant  son  at  Paris, 
now  kin"  of  England,  and  France. 

Henry’s  widow,  Catherine,  afterwards  married  Owen 
Tudor,  a Welsh  chieftain,  one  of  her  attendants,  and 
from  them  sprang  the  Tudor  sovereigns. 

Beginning  of  the  Navy.  The  first  ship  of  war  ever 
owned  by  the  English  government  was  built  in  Henry’s 
reign.  Before  this  period,  the  maritime  towns  had  fur- 
nished all  the  ships  needed  for  Tvar  or  national  pur- 


100 


IIENKY  Y. 


poses.*  The  House  of  Commons  took  but  a single 
step  in  advance  during  Henry’s  reign.  It  settled  the 
principle  that  no  law  should  be  valid  without  the  assent 
of  the  House  of  Commons. 

-Henry  YI.,  1422  to  1461  — 31)  years.  Lancaster. 

The  Dauphin  of  France  Assumes  the  Crown.  Henry 
YI.  was  crowned  King  of  England  and  France  at  the 
age  of  nine  months,  his  uncles,  the  Dukes  of  Glouces- 
ter and  Bedford,  being  appointed,  in  accordance  with 
the  wish  of  his  father,  the  one  Protector  of  the  Realm 
of  England,  and  the  other  Regent  of  France.  The 
Dauphin  of  France  had  never  consented  to  the  " Treaty 
of  Troyes,”  setting  aside  his  claims  to  the  throne,  and, 
at  the  death  of  his  maniac  father,  shortly  after  that  of 
Henry  V.,  assumed  the  title  of  Charles  VII.  The 
town  of  Orleans,  lying  on  the  north  side  of  the  Loire, 
and  the  country  south  of  the  Loire,  were  loyal  to 
Charles,  never  having  come  under  the  sway  of  Eng- 
land. Bedford,  who,  as  a soldier,  was  little  inferior 
to  Henry  Y.  himself,  laid  siege  to  Orleans,  with  the 
design  of  extending  the  English  dominion.  The 
French  were  in  consternation;  for,  with  the  fall  of 
Orleans,  the  country  south  of  the  Loire  would  be  open 
to  invasion. 

Joan  of  Arc.  The  amazing  success  of  the  cam- 
paigns of  Edward  III.  and  Henry  Y.  had  given  the 
French  an  exalted  idea  of  English  valor  and  a great 

* The  dependence  of  the  government  on  maritime  towns,  for  ships  of  war, 
continued  for  a long  time,  even  after  it  began  to  own  vessels  of  its  own  ; for 
the  growth  of  the  English  Navy  w’a3  very  slow.  The  lleet  with  which  Eliza- 
beth, many  years  later,  destroyed  the  Invincible  Armada,  was  mainly  contrib- 
uted, all  manned  and  equipped,  by  maritime  towns  and  wealthy  individuals. 


IIENIIY  VI. 


101 


dihtrust  of  tlicir  own.  There  is  no  other  explanation 
of  the  ease  with  which  a mere  handful  of  English 
soldiers  could  repeatedly  overrun  the  most  populous 
districts  of  France.  It  was  at  this  moment,  when 
French  despondency  was  deepest,  that  help  appeared 
from  a most  unexpected  quarter.  A simple  peasant 
girl  of  Domremy,  on  the  eastern  confines  of  France, 
believing  that  she  was  destined  by  Heaven  to  free  her 
country  from  foreign  rule,  presented  herself  at  the 
Court  of  Charles.  She  told  the  story  of  the  angel 
visions  she  had  seen,  and  the  voices  she  had  heard, 
commanding  her  to  go  to  the  succor  of  her  king.  The 
French  people  had  unlimited  faith  in  Joan’s  divine  com 
mission,  and  Charles  himself,  believing,  or  professing 
to  believe,  her  story,  paid  her  the  greatest  honor.  The 
belief  in  sorcery  and  witchcraft  was  all  but  universal  in 
that  age.  To*  allay  the  alarm  of  their  superstitious 
soldiers,  the  English  commanders  assured  them  that 
Joan  was  not  a messenger  of  Heaven,  but  this  only 
forced  them  to  the  belief  that  she  was  sent  by  the  Evil 
One,  and  was  a witch,  and  their  dismay  was  complete. 

Joan,  clad  in  white  armor  and  mounted  oil  a snow 
white  horse,  with  a great  white  banner  borne  before 
her,  on  which  were  embroidered  the  lilies  of  France, 
directed  her  march  towards  Orleans.  Crowds  of 
excited  soldiers  joined  the  strange  procession  that 
passed  unopposed  through  the  lines  of  the  awe-stricken 
English,  and  entered  Orleans.  Under  her  lead,  the 
French  soldiers,  restored  to  confidence  in  themselves, 
soon  drove  the  besieging  army  from  its  intrenchments, 
and  Orleans  was  saved. 


102 


IIENRY  VI. 


Joan,  called  from  this  time  the  " Maid  of  Or- 
leans,” then  commenced  her  triumphant  march  on 
Rheims,  where,  according  to  the  prophetic  ''voices,” 
the  king  was  to  receive  his  crown.  Town  after  town 
was  taken  on  the  way,  sometimes  without  a blow,  the 
English  soldiers  flying  in  dismay  as  the  dread  banner 
came  in  sight.  At  Rheims,  the  garrison  was  driven  out 
by  the  inhabitants,  and  the  gates  opened  wide  to  receive 
the  advancing  host.  In  the  old  cathedral  that  had 
witnessed  the  coronation  of  so  many  of  his  ancestors, 
Charles  was  formally  crowned  King  of  France  in  1429. 

Joan,  with  tears  of  joy,  declared  that  her  work  was 
done,  her  mission  ended,  and  desired  to  return  at 
once  to  the  care  of  her  father’s  flocks.  There  were 
other  cities  to  be  conquered,  and  the  king  detained  her  ; 
but  her  enthusiasm  was  gone,  her  counsels  became  timid 
and  vacillating,  and  the  spell  of  her  power  over  the  sol- 
diery was  soon  broken.  Captured  in  the  defence  of 
Compiegne,  she  was  sold  to  the  English  by  Burgundy, 
and,  after  a year’s  captivity  at  Rouen , basely  handed  over 
to  the  church  courts  for  trial.  Being  condemned  as  a 
witch  and  a heretic,  she  was  burned  to  death  in  the 
ancient  market-place  at  Rouen,  in  1431.  Whatever 
credit  we  may  give  to  the  " visions  ” and  " voices  ” Joan 
professed  to  have  seen  and  heard,  we  cannot  doubt 
her  heartfelt  sorrow  for  her  crownless  king  and  fallen 
country,  her  sincere  faith  in  her  mission,  or  her  devo- 
tion in  fulfilling  it,  her  purity,  her  piety,  and  her  mar- 
tyr’s death.  Though  her  ungrateful  king  made  no 
effort  to  rescue  or  ranisom  her,  and  took  no  interest  in 
her  fate,  her  name  is  held  in  grateful  remembrance 
among  her  countrymen,  and  excites  a tender  respect 


HENRY  VI. 


103 


wherever  her  strange,  sad  story  is  told.  These  will 
form  a monument  more  enduring  than  that  erected  to 
her  memory  on  the  spot  where  she  died. 

Loss  of  all  France,  except  Calais.  The  English  rule 
in  France  was  hastening  to  its  close.  The  Dukes  of 
Burgundy  and  Orleans  had  been  reconciled,  and  their 
united  forces  hurled  against  the  English.  Fighting 
bravely,  but  defeated  on  every  side,  they  retired  to  Nor- 
mandy in  the  hope  that  that  province,  at  least,  might 
be  saved.  There  was  a truce  and  then  a treaty,  but  both 
were  powerless  to  stop  the  war.  Normandy  rose  in 
rebellion  in  the  north,  and  Guienne  in  the  south. 
Though  the  English  fought  with  desperate  valor,  they 
were  steadily  driven  towards  the  sea-board,  and  finally 
within  the  walls  of  Calais,  and  the  "Hundred  Years’ 
War,”  that  long,  fitful  dream  of  an  English  empire  in 
France  was  over.  Such  an  empire  was  impossible. 

The  campaigns  of  Edward  III.  and  Henry  Y.  were 
brilliant,  but  unsubstantial,  feeding  the  national  pride, 
but  exhausting  the  national  resources.  As  soon  as 
those  great  captains  retired  from  the  scenes  of  their 
conquests,  those  conquests  melted  away  like  mist  before 
the  morning  sun.  The  French  crown  was  but  a bright 
and  tempting  "Will-o’-the-wisp,”  luring  on  ambitious 
kings,  but  ever  eluding  their  grasp. 

English  Discontent.  The  loss  of  France  caused  in- 
tense disappointment  in  England,  and  as  the  vengeance 
of  the  people  could  not  be  visited  on  the  royal  person, 
it  fell  on  the  heads  of  his  advisers.  The  Duke  of  Suf- 
folk had  brought  about  the  marriage  of  Henry  with 
Margaret  of  Anjou,  consenting,  in  the  contract,  to  the 
cession  of  Maine  and  Anjou  to  Margaret’s  father.  To 


104 


IIENRY  VI. 


satisfy  popular  clamor,  Suffolk  was  impeached  by  Par- 
liament, and  hurried  by  the  king  into  exile,  to  save  him 
from  a worse  fate  at  home.  But  Suffolk’s  enemies  were 
not  to  be  cheated  out  of  their  prey.  lie  was  pursued 
and  overtaken  on  the  high  seas  by  a large  ship,  called  the 
"Nicholas  of  the  Tower.”  Being  ordered  on  board 
the  Nicholas,  he  was  greeted,  as  he  reached  its  deck, 
with  the  salutation,  "Welcome  traitor.”  Two  days  after- 
wards, he  was  let  down  into  a small  boat  and  beheaded 
with  a rusty  sword,  on  a block  of  wood.  The  Duke  of 
Somerset  was  held  responsible  for  the  more  recent 
losses  in  France.  But,  being  a relative  of  the  king  and 
a favorite  of  the  queen,  he  continued  for  a while  to 
defy  all  his  enemies. 

Jack  Cade’s  Rebellion.  Shortly  after  the  death  of 
Suffolk,  a revolt  broke  out  under  one  Jack  Cade,  an 
old  soldier  in  the  French  wars.  It  grew  out  of  the 
general  discontent  at  the  mismanagement  of  the  gov- 
ernment at  home  and  abroad.  Cade’s  grievances  were 
embodied  in  a " Complaint”  sent  to  the  Royal  Council, 
of  which  bad  counselors  to  the  king,  interference  of 
the  nobles  in  the  elections,  extortion  of  the  royal  of- 
ficers, and  the  Statute  of  Laborers,  formed  the  chief 
burden.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  this  revolt  was 
chiefly  located  in  Kent,  Wat  Tyler’s  old  home,  and 
among  the  very  classes  implicated  in  Tyler’s  old  re- 
bellion.* Cade,  advancing  towards  London  with  a 

* Tyler’s  principal  grievance  was  serfage,  and  his  chief  demand  freedom. 
The  fact  that  neither  serfage  nor  freedom  was  mentioned  in  Cade’s  Complaint 
is  strong  incidental  proof  that  slavery,  though  still  on  the  statute  book,  had 
virtually  died  out,  especially  in  its  more  odious  features.  The  sumptuary 
laws  of  this  period  also  show  the  improved  condition  of  the  lower  classes, 
and  the  gradual  passing  away  of  social  distinctions.  Although  the  Statute  of 
Laborers  was  still  unrepcalcd,  it  had  ceased  to  be  executed,  the  labor  question 


HENRY  VI. 


10.1 


motley  crowd  of  twenty  thousand  men,  met  and  scat- 
tered the  royal  forces  at  Sevenoaks.  The  king  fled  to 
Kenilworth,  and  Cade  entered  London.  Three  days 
he  held  the  city,  putting  to  death  obnoxious  persons, 
and,  at  the  last,  plundering  private  property.  Retiring 
at  night  to  Southwark,  the  citizens  held  London  bridge 
and  prevented  his  return.  On  a promise  of  pardon 
and  redress  of  grievances,  the  pacified  insurgents  began 
to  return  to  their  homes,  while  Cade  himself,  with  a 
price  on  his  head,  and  almost  without  a follower,  was 
pursued  into  the  country  and  put  to  death. 

Events  Preceding  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  Cade’s 
rebellion  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  incited  by 
Richard,  Duke  of  York,  who  returned  from  his  govern- 
ment in  Ireland,  in  a short  time,  only  to  increase  still 
more  the  general  confusion.  He  demanded  the  dismission 
of  the  Duke  of  Somerset  from  office.  The  violent  quarrel 
that  now  began  between  the  ambitious  Dukes  soon  ripen- 
ed into  open  war.  Henry,  although  a man  in  years, 
was  but  a child  in  intellect.  The  real  government  lay 
in  the  hands  of  the  Queen,  the  friend  of  Somerset.  At 
this  juncture  Henry  sank  into  utter  imbecility,  and  Par- 
liament appointed  York,  Protector.  Somerset  went  into 
the  Tower.  The  king  recovered,  and  York  retired  to  his 
estate,  wdiile  Somerset  returned  to  power.  The  most 
powerful  noble  in  England  was  the  Earl  of  Warwick, 
who  took  the  side  of  York.  In  the  spring  of  1455, 
York  and  Warwick  marched  towards  London,  with 

being  lea,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  natural  laws  (hat  govern  it,  the  laws  of 
supply  and  demand.  In  comparing  the  two  revolts,  Tyler’s  was  an  outburst 
of  despair  on  the  part  of  men  whose  wrongs  had  become  unendurable;  Cade's 
a mere  political  outbreak,  inaugurated  by  men  dissatisfied  with  the  manage* 
incut  of  public  affairs. 


106 


HENRY  VI. 


professions  of  loyalty  to  the  king,  but  with  a peremp- 
tory demand  for  the  surrender  of  Somerset.  The 
battle  of  St.  Albans,  in  1455,  left  Somerset  dead  on 
the  field  ; that  of  Northampton,  in  1460,  witnessed  the 
complete  overthrow  of  the  royal  forces  and  the  capture 
of  the  king  himself. 

Hitherto,  the  Duke  of  York  had  professed  loyalty  to 
the  king  and  enmity  only  to  his  bad  advisers,  but 
he  now  revealed  the  hidden  purpose  that  had  inspired 
all  his  movements  from  the  beginning.  Boldly  enter- 
ing the  House  of  Lords,  he  pronounced  Henry  VI.  a 
usurper,  and  claimed  the  crown  as  his  own  by  right 
of  inheritance.*  The  Lords,  compelled  to  act,  ac- 
knowledged the  justice  of  his  claim,  but  decided  that, 
since  the  House  of  Lancaster  had  held  the  sceptre  for 
sixty  years  and  the  nation  had  sworn  fealty  to  its  pres- 
ent king,  with  him  the  sceptre  should  remain  while  he 
lived,  and  then  descend  to  the  House  of  York. 

— Wars  of  the  Roses.  Henry’s  spirited  Queen,  in- 
dignant at  an  arrangement  that  disinherited  her  son, 
summoned  all  the  friends  of  the  House  of  Lancas- 
ter to  the  field.  The  conflicting  claims  of  the  two 
Houses  had  been  discussed  at  every  hearth-stone  and 
camp-fire  in  England,  and  the  sympathies  of  civilians 
as  well  as  soldiers  were  warmly  enlisted  on  the  one 
side  or  the  other.  The  adherents  of  the  House  of  Lan- 
caster wore  as  a badge  the  red  rose,  and  those  of  the 
House  of  York,  a white  rose ; hence  the  name  " Wars  of 
the  Roses.”  Though  there  was  actual  warfare  less  than 
two,  these  wars  covered  a period  of  thirty,  years,  sacri- 


* See  note  on  page  90. 


IIENRY  VI. 


107 


ticing  nearly  all  the  members  of  both  royal  families, 
and  more  than  half  the  ancient  nobility  of  England.  In 
the  first  conllict,  at  Wakefield,  in  1460,  the  lied  Rose 
triumphed  over  the  White,  the  Duke  of  York  being 
captured  and  brought  to  the  block,  on  the  field  of 
battle.  Ilis  head  was  placed  on  the  walls  of  York, 
adorned,  in  mockery,  with  a paper  crown.  In  the 
second,  at  Mortimer’s  Cross,  the  White  triumphed  over 
the  Red,  Edward,  the  young  Duke  of  York,  being  in 
command.  In  the  third,  at  St.  Albans,  the  Red  was 
again  victorious,  and  King  Henry,  who  had  been 
brought,  a prisoner,  upon  the  field  by  Warwick, 
being  left  behind  in  the  rush  of  retreat,  was  restored 
to  liberty. 

The  true  qualities  of  most  minds  arc  best  seen  in 
emergencies.  Some  men  are  never  so  little  to  be  fear- 
ed as  when  victorious ; others  never  so  dangerous  as 
after  a defeat.  While  the  Lancastrian  generals,  in- 
stead of  following  up  their  advantage  at  St.  Albans, 
allowed  their  men  to  scatter  over  the  country  to  pillage, 
Edward,  spurred  to  promptitude  and  boldness  by  fail- 
ure, pushed  straight  on  to  London.  As  the  young  and 
handsome  prince  rode  through  the  streets  of  the 
capital,  lie  was  greeted  by  the  people  with  shouts  of 
"Long  live  King  Edward.”  A council  of  peers, 
prelates,  and  citizens,  was  hastily  convened,  before 
whom  Edward  boldly  demanded  the  crown.  The 
council  declared  that  Henry  had  forfeited  his  life-lease 
by  taking  sides  with  the  Queen,  and  that  Edward  was 
the  rightful  King.  The  formal  coronation  took  place 
at  Westminster,  June  29tli,  1461. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


House  of  York,  1461  to  1483  — 22  years. 

EDWARD  IV.  I RICHARD  III, 

EDWARD  V.  I 

Edward  IT.,  1461  to  1483  — 22  years.  York. 

Towton,  A.D.  1461.  Edward  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  all  the  forces  he  could  muster,  and  set  out  in 
pursuit  of  the  Lancastrians,  now  hurrying  northward. 
He  overtook  them  at  Towton,  about  eight  miles  from 
York.  Each  army  numbered  sixty  thousand  men.  It 
was  in  the  midst  of  a snow  storm,  about  four  o’clock 
in  the  afternoon  of  Palm  Sunday,  that  the  struggle 
began.  All  night  long  and  part  of  the  following  day 
the  dreadful  battle  raged,  and  when  the  Lancastrian 
army,  panic-struck,  fled  from  the  field,  thirty-three 
thousand  men  lay  dead  in  the  snow.  It  had  been  the 
practice,  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  war,  for  either 
party,  when  victorious,  to  execute  the  nobles  of  the 
other,  and  confiscate  their  estates.  After  Towton  there 
wTas  a sweeping  confiscation  of  Lancastrian  estates, 
many  of  which  went  to  reward  the  Earl  of  Warwick, 
the  main  pillar  of  the  House  of  York.  So  rich  and 
powerful  did  this  nobleman  become,  it  is  said  he  could 
muster  an  army  of  men  from  the  vassals  on  his  own 
estates,  and  he  has  come  down  to  us  in  history  as  the 


(106) 


EDWARD  IV. 


109 


King-maker,  from  his  ability,  as  we  shall  presently  see, 
to  make  and  unmake  kings. 

Two  risings  occurred  within  the  next  two  yrcars,  only 
important  as  one  of  them  left  Henry  a prisoner  in  the 
hands  of  Edward,  and  the  other  made  Margaret  a 
friendless  fugitive,  attended  only  by  her  little  boy  of 
eleven.* 

Tewkesbury,  A.D.  1471.  King  Edward  was  growing 
jealous  of  the  overshadowing  power  of  Warwick. 
The  romantic  and  secret  marriage  of  Edward  to  Eliza- 
beth Grey  (widow  of  a Lancastrian  knight  who  fell  on 
the  field  of  St.  Albans),  against  Warwick’s  wishes,  the 
elevation  of  the  queen’s  family  to  power,  and  the  re- 
moval of  Warwick’s  friends,  one  after  another,  from 
office,  — led,  first  to  estrangement,  and  then  to  open 
war,  between  them. 

Fortune  was  fickle.  Edward  a prisoner  to  Warwick, 
and  the  betrothal  of  Edward’s  infant  daughter  to  War- 
wick’s heir,  as  the  price  of  liberty",  — Warwick  a fugi- 
tive at  the  Court  of  France,  his  reconciliation  with 
Margaret,  and  the  betrothal  of  Margaret’s  son  to  War- 
wick’s daughter,  on  condition  that  Warwick  should  re- 
store the  House  of  Lancaster  to  power, — the  return 
of  Warwick  to  England,  the  flight  of  Edward  to  the 
Court  of  Burgundy,  and  the  transfer  of  Henry  from 

* In  the  midst  of  so  much  barbarity  and  so  little  chivalry,  it  is  refreshing  to 
read  of  the  noble  conduct  of  an  outlaw  of  the  forest.  Margaret,  haviLgfied 
for  safety  to  the  woods,  was  discovered  by  a band  of  robbers.  While  they 
were  quarrelling  over  her  gold  and  jewels,  Margaret,  taking  her  little  boy  by 
the  hand,  plunged  into  the  depths  of  the  forest,  and  into  the  very  presence  of 
another  outlaw.  Throwing  herself  upon  his  generosity,  she  exclaimed, 
“ This  is  the  son  of  your  king;  to  your  care  I commit  him ; I am  your  que  n. ” 
The  outlaw,  touched  at  the  pitiful  state  of  the  queen,  and  the  confidence  she 
reposed  in  him,  took  them  under  his  protection,  and  guided  them  in  safety 
across  the  border. 


110 


EDWARD  IV, 


Tower  to  the  Throne, — the  landing  of  Edward  on  the 
western  coast,  the  death  of  Warwick  on  the  field  of 
Barnet,  and  the  utter  and  final  overthrow  of  the 
House  of  Lancaster  at  Tewkesbury,  where  Margaret 
herself  was  taken  captive,  and  her  son  stabbed,  while 
crying  for  mercy, — are  events  which  followed  each 
other  in  rapid  and  confusing  succession.  Henry  re- 
turned to  the  Tower,  never  to  leave  it  again ; and  his 
high-spirited  queen,  who  had  been  the  very  soul  of  the 
war,  ransomed  by  the  King  of  France  after  five  years 
of  captivity,  returned  to  her  native  Anjou,  and  died 
in  a few  years,  broken-hearted  at  the  disasters  that  had 
befallen  her  family. 

Character  and  Government  of  Edward.  Edward 
had  a superior  mind  and  was  a good  soldier.  So  long 
as  his  crown  was  in  jeopardy,  he  continued  vigilant  and 
active  ; but  when  the  last  enemies  of  his  house  had  been 
silenced,  in  the  dungeon,  in  exile,  or  in  death,  he  gave 
himself  unreservedly  to  the  gayeties  and  excesses  of 
his  court.  Handsome  and  affable,  he  made  himself  a 
favorite  in  society  ; but  sagacious  and  unscrupulous  in 
matters  of  state,  he  became  a tyrant  and  established  a 
despotism. 

He  attempted  to  revive  the  old  thread-bare  claim  to 
sovereignty  in  France.  Parliament  voted  large  sums 
for  a French  war,  and  raised  and  transported  to  French 
soil  an  immense  army.  Advancing  from  Calais  a short 
distance,  negotiations  were  opened  with  King  Louis, 
resulting  in  a treaty,  Edward  yielding  his  claims  for  an 
annual  pension. 

The  odious  spy  system  was  a device  of  Edward’s,  and 
was  made  so  thorough,  that  the  lightest  court  gossip  as 


EDWARD  IV. 


Ill 


well  as  the  gravest  state  intrigue  found  its  way  to  the 
king’s  ear.  Another  invention  of  Edward’s  was  called  a 
benevolence.”  This  was  a gift  of  money  which  lie 
would  invite  his  rich  subjects  to  make  him,  and  which 
they  dared  not  refuse, — an  ingenious  way  of  keeping 
the  letter,  but  violating  the  spirit,  of  the  law  against 
arbitrary  taxation. 

Results  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  We  are  now 
at  the  close  of  Edward’s  reign,  and  although  the  last 
battle  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  has  not  yet  been  fought, 
the  main  part  of  the  struggle  is  over,  and  it  seems 
proper  here  to  allude  briefly  to  its  general  results. 
These  may  be.  summed  up  as  follows  : — 1st.  The  de- 
struction of  the  ancient  nobility  of  England  and  the 
fall  of  the  Feudal  System.  2nd.  The  loss  of  constitu- 
tional liberty.  3rd.  The  decline  of  civilization.  • 

The  Destruction  of  the  Ancient  Nobility.  The 
Wars  of  the  Roses  were  peculiarly  the  wars  of  the 
nobles.  All  the  great  feudal  houses,  gathered  around 
the  rival  standards  of  York  and  Lancaster,  were  hurled 
against  each  other,  in  battle  after  battle,  with  frightful 
loss.  Confiscations,  executions,  andexile,  still  further 
diminished  their  numbers  and  power,  until,  at  the  close 
of  the  contest,  the  ancient  baronage  of  England  was 
left  a hopeless  wreck.  It  is  said  that  at  one  time  and 
another,  during  these  wars,  the  Crown  held  one-fifth  of 
all  the  real  estate  in  England  as  its  share  of  the  spoils. 
It  is  true,  both  lands  and  titles  remained,  some  of  them 
to  return  to  their  former  owners  or  their  kindred,  but 
more  went  to  enrbh  and  ennoble  the  favorites  of  the 
king. 


112 


EDWARD  IV. 


The  nobility,  thus  re-creatcd  by  royal  clemency  and 
royal  bounty,  was  shorn  of  its  traditional  power  and 
independence.  It  bore  little  resemblance  to  the  grand 
feudal  race  that,  coming  clown  from  the  Conqueror, 
was  as  old  as  the  throne  and  as  proud ; to  the  lordly 
race  that,  for  centuries,  had  stood  so  firmly  between 
the  throne  and  the  people,  the  support  of  the  one 
against  faction,  and  the  defence  of  the  other  against 
tyranny. 

We  cannot  help  a feeling  of  admiration  for  the  old- 
time  baron  of  England,  whether  we  recall  him  in  time 
of  peace,  in  the  old  ancestral  castle,  extending  a rude 
but  hearty  hospitality,  or  in  time  of  war,  closing  his 
gates  and  bidding  defiance  to  all  his  foes.  He  feasted 
or  he  fought  with  equal  relish,  and  was  no  respecter  of 
persons,  buckling  on  his  armor  as  readily  for  a tilt  with 
the  forces  of  the  king  as  with  those  of  his  quarrelsome 
neighbor.  Said  Earl  Warrenne,  as  he  flung  his  sword 
on  the  table  before  the  commissioners  of  Edward  I., 
sent  to  examine  his  title  deed,  " That,  sirs,  is  my  title 
deed.”  When  Earl  Bigod  refused  the  demand  of 
Henry  III.  for  aid,  said  the  latter,  " I will  send  reapers 
and  reap  your  fields  for  you.”  "And  I will  send  you 
back  the  heads  of  your  reapers,”  replied  the  fearless 
Earl. 

We  can  but  honor  their  patriotism  as  well  as  admire 
their  fearlessness.  Time  and  again  did  they  come  to 
the  front  in  periods  of  national  peril.  The  barons  of 
England  wrung  from  the  tyrant  John  the  great  char- 
ter of  freedom.  Who  that  lias  read  the  story  of 
Magna  Charta  has  not  longed  to  know  which  of  the 
immortal  twenty-four  was  the  Jefferson  who  conceived 


EDWARD  IV. 


113 


and  framed  that  wonderful  instrument?  But  history  is 
not  silent  as  to  the  name  of  Simon  dc  Montfort,  the 
leader  of  that  other  immortal  twenty-four  that  reared 
the  House  of  Commons  in  the  very  face  of  the  throne 
itself. 

With  the  ancient  baronage  fell  the  Feudal  System. 
Feudalism,  as  a power  in  England,  expired,  as  it  were, 
in  a bright  but  lurid  flame,  when  the  House  of  War- 
wick, after  towering  for  a brief  period,  high  above 
the  throne  itself,  suddenly  went  down  on  the  field  of 
Barnet.  The  regret  of  the  reader  will  be  but  natural 
that  Warwick,  who  has  been  fitly  called  the  " Last  of 
the  Barons,”  could  not  have  been  the  best  as  well  as 
the  last  of  his  race. 

- — The  Loss  of  Constitutional  Liberty.  From  the 
Magna  Charta  to  the  Wars  of  the  Boses,  there  was  a 
slow  but  real  progress  in  constitutional  liberty,  almost 
every  reign  bringing  either  a limitation  of  the  royal 
prerogative  or  an  enlargement  of  popular  rights. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Wars  of  the  Boses,  there 
had  been  established,  so  far  as  the  intelligence  of  the 
people  and  the  arbitrary  dispositions  of  kings  allowed, 
the  following  principles  : — The  king  had  lost  the  right 
to  levy  taxes,  make  or  change  the  laws,  and  imprison 
or  punish  subjects  arbitrarily.  Parliament  had  gained, 
besides  the  control  of  laws  and  taxes,  the  right  to 
impeach  and  remove  the  ministers  of  the  crown,  direct 
and  investigate  expenditures,  depose  the  king,  and 
settle  questions  of  peace  and  war.  During  the  Wars 
of  the  Boses,  all  these  great  principles  and  guarantees, 
won  through  centuries  of  toil  and  suffering,  were 
rudely  swept  away,  and  it  was  a century  more,  before 


114 


EDWARD  IV. 


the  nation  had  sufficiently  recovered  itself  to  rc-assert 
and  re-establish  them.  England  may  be  said  to  have 
passed  from  an  absolute  to  a limited  monarchy,  when,  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  the  king  lost  the  right  to  levy 
taxes  without  the  consent  of  Parliament.  Edward  IV. 
reduced  England  to  an  absolute  monarchy  again,  that 
continued  to  grow  more  and  more  absolute,  until,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  it  had  become  a despotism  as 
unmitigated  as  that  of  the  Czar. 

Nor  is  this  strange.  The  nobility,  shattered  and 
dependent,  had  neither  power  nor  prestige,  and  could 
no  longer,  if  it  would,  stand  between  the  people  and 
oppression ; the  church  that  had  so  often  stood  side 
by  side  with  the  nobility  in  the  contest  with  tyranny, 
was  stricken  with  heresy,  and  paralyzed  through  fear  of 
another  reformation ; the  people  were  not  yet  suffi- 
ciently enlightened  to  understand  or  maintain  their 
own  lights  ; and  so  the  crown  was  left  with  little  or 
no  restraint,  and  the  descent  towards  absolutism  was 
easy  and  rapid.  Charters,  statutes,  and  human  rights 
were  trodden  under  foot  with  perfect  impunity.  To 
use  the  language  of  Green,  "The  Crown  which  only 
fifty  years  before  had  been  the  sport  of  every  faction, 
towered  into  solitary  greatness.” 

Though  constitutional  liberty  seemed,  after  the  Wars 
of  the  Poses,  to  have  departed  from  England,  none 
of  the  great  statutes  advancing  the  cause  of  human 
rights  were  ever  abrogated. 

The  Magna  Charta  was  recognized  as  the  supreme 
law  of  the  land  by  kings  and  ministers,  even  while 
they  trampled  its  provisions  under  their  feet.  The 


EDWARD  IV. 


115 


Monarchy  and  the  House  of  Lords  were  once  abol- 
ished, but  the  House  of  Commons  never.  Though 
hated  by  tyrants,  and  so  prorogued,  dissolved,  over- 
awed, and  ignored,  it  never  for  a moment  ceased  to 
exist. 

The  Decline  of  Civilization.  The  barbarous  manner 
m which  these  wars  were  conducted  was  most  debasing, 
not  only  to  the  soldiers  who  were  actors,  but  also 
to  the  people  who  were  spectators,  in  the  horrible 
drama.  "No  quarter,”  was  the  savage  order  in  many 
a battle.  But  more  demoralizing  than  this  were  the 
cold-blooded  executions  that  followed  almost  every 
victory.  And  most  brutalizing  of  all  was  the  hideous 
md  sickening  spectacle  of  ghastly  heads  and  limbs  of 
human  bodies,  impaled  on  stakes  and  walls  in  public 
places,  and  constantly  staring  the  people  in  the  face. 
What  a school  for  the  young  were  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses  ! The  nobler  qualities  of  individual  character 
were  consumed  in  the  fierceness  of  the  hate  which  these 
wars  engendered.  There  is  hardly  a chivalrous  deed  to 
be  found  in  the  whole  gloomy  record.  War  is  not  neces- 
sarily demoralizing  to  cither  individual  or  national 
character.  When  waged  in  the  cause  of  truth  and  jus- 
tice, it  may  be  ennobling  to  both.  A Washington  or 
a Hampden  may  become  great  and  good  in  the  midst 
of  conflict  and  carnage.  But  in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses 
there  was  no  principle  at  stake.  The  welfare  of  a 
nation  was  sacrificed  to  the  interests  of  a house;  the 
patriot  was  sunk  in  the  partisan ; the  baser  passions 
ruled,  and  civilization  declined. 


116 


EDWARD  V. 


Edward  Y.,  April  9th  to  June  26th,  1483.  York. 

Usurpation  of  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester.  The 

people  of  England  had  settled  down  tolerably  contented 
under  Edward  IY. , in  spite  of  the  tyrannical  character 
of  his  government.  In  fact,  they  were  willing  to  ac- 
cept almost  any  rule  that  could  save  them  from  the 
horrors  of  civil  war,  and  give  some  promise  of  sta- 
bility. At  Edward’s  death,  there  was  a general  dispo- 
sition to  receive  kindly  his  son  Edward,  as  his  suc- 
cessor. But  there  was  one  man  in  England  who  did 
not  share  this  feeling,  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
uncle  to  the  young  prince.  With  the  subtle  craft  of 
which  lie  was  master,  Richard  concealed  his  ambition 
under  a mask  of  loyalty,  but  at  once  put  into  opera- 
tion a scheme  of  usurpation,  that,  for  boldness  of  de- 
sign and  skill  in  execution,  has  few  equals. 

He  first  arrested  on  a trivial  charge,  Lords  Grey 
and  Rivers,  Prince  Edward’s  uncles  on  his  mother’s 
side,  and  threw  them  into  castle  Pontefract.  He  then 
possessed  himself  of  the  person  of  Edward,  and  after- 
wards, of  Edward’s  younger  brother,  Richard,  and 
lodged  them  for  safe  keeping,  as  he  said,  in  the  Tower. 
He  next  secured  from  Parliament  his  own  appointment 
as  Protector  of  England,  and  at  the  same  time,  with 
other  peers,  took  the  oath  of  fealty  to  Edward. 

A few  days  after  this,  on  the  13th  of  June,  occurred 
a scene  in  the  Tower,  where  the  royal  council  were  in 
session,  marked  in  itself,  but  made  forever  classic  by 
the  genius  of  Shakspeare.  Richard  suddenly  presented 
himself  before  this  council,  at  the  head  of  a file  of  sol- 
diers, and  charged  its  president,  Lord  Hastings,  with 


EDWARD  V. 


117 


sorcery  and  designs  upon  liis  life.  "I  will  not  dine,” 
said  he,  at  length,  "till  they  have  brought  me  youi 
head.”  Hastings  was  quickly  hurried  into  the  court- 
yard by  the  waiting  soldiers,  and  beheaded  on  a chance 
block  of  wood.  The  other  members  of  the  council 
were  cast  into  prison.  Having  thus  put  out  of  the  way 
all  the  immediate  friends  of  the  young  princes,  Richard’s 
elevation  to  the  throne  became  easy.  He  surrounded 
himself  with  soldiers,  and  was  attended  in  public  by  a 
formidable  array  of  prelates  and  nobles,  many  of  whom 
were  won  to  his  side  by  the  honors  and  offices  he  heaped 
upon  them.  The  Thames  is  said  to  have  been  covered 
with  the  barges  of  his  servants,  while  in  London  organ- 
ized gatherings  of  the  rabble  were  taught  to  shout, 
"Long  live  King  Richard,”  and  a shameless  friar,  in  a 
sermon  at  Paul’s  Cross,  pronounced  the  princes  illegiti- 
mate, and  declared  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  to  be  the 
true  heir  to  the  kingdom.  Finally,  a deputation  headed 
by  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  Richard’s  pliant  minion 
from  the  beginning,  invited  him  to  take  the  crown, 
which,  with  a show  of  reluctance,  he  consented  to  do. 

The  next  day,  at  an  informal  meeting  of  members  of 
Parliament,  the  declarations  of  the  friar  received  a 
shameless  endorsement,  and  Richard,  the  following 
day,  the  26th  of  June,  occupied  the  royal  seat  at 
Westminster  Hall,  as  King  Richard  III.  The  same 
day,  Grey  and  Rivers  were  beheaded  without  a show 
of  trial.  The  formal  coronation  took  place  on  the  6th 
of  July,  and  the  well-planned  tragedy,  of  which  Glou- 
cester and  Buckingham  were  the  authors  and  chief 
actors,  the  whole  kingdom  of  England  a stage,  and  all 
its  people  silent  but  interested  spectators,  was  over. 


118 


RICHARD  III. 


Richard  III.,  1483  to  1485  — 2 years.  York. 

The  Elements  of  Opposition  to  Richard.  Although 
no  open  resistance  was  made  to  the  usurpation  of 
Richard,  ho  had  numerous  enemies,  including  nearly 
all  the  adherents  of  the  House  of  Lancaster  and  those 
of  the  House  of  York,  who  were,  at  heart,  loyal  to  the 
rightful  king,  Edward  Y.  There  was,  too,  a general 
feeling  of  indignation  at  the  harsh  treatment  of  the 
young  princes;  for,  at  the  accession  of  Richard,  they 
had  been  removed  from  the  palace  of  the  Tower  to  its 
prison.  There  were  whispers  of  a gathering  storm. 
The  Duke  of  Buckingham,  now  estranged  from  his  old 
master,  was  getting  ready  for  a rising  to  liberate  the 
princes  and  restore  Edward  to  his  rights.  Henry 
Tudor,  Earl  of  Richmond,  the  last  surviving  member 
of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  who  had  been  saved  at  the 
fall  of  the  Lancastrian  cause,  by  flight  to  the  continent, 
was  busy  enlisting  English  exiles  and  fugitives  to  return 
and  assist  in  the  rising. 

The  Smothered  Princes.  Richard  had  gone  to  the 
north  on  a " royal  progress,”  and  was  at  Warwick  when 
vague  rumors  of  Richmond’s  plans  first  reached  his 
ears.  A messenger  of  Richard’s  rode  swiftly  back  to 
London  on  a secret  mission,  and  soon  it  was  noised 
abroad  that  the  young  princes  were  no  more.  How  or 
when  they  had  died  no  one  knew;  but  that  a foul 
murder  had  been  committed,  and  that  Richard  was 
its  instigator,  all  believed.  The  very  mystery  in 
which  the  fate  of  the  princes  was  shrouded,  as 
impenetrable  as  the  glcomy  walls  that  were  its  silent 
witnesses,  served  but  to  deepen  the  public  horror  of 
the  crime,  and  the  public  abhorrence  of  the  criminal. 


RICHARD  III. 


11? 


After  Richard’s  death,  the  hired  assassins  told  how  they 
smothered  the  little  princes,  sweetly  sleeping  in  each 
other’s  arms,  and  buried  them  at  the  foot  of  the  stair- 
case that  led  to  their  apartment  in  the  White  Tower. 
In  confirmation  of  this  story,  it  is  said  that  some  work- 
men, sent  by  Charles  II.,  in  1674,  to  make  repairs, 
found  buried  in  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  an  old  stair- 
case, the  bones  of  two  youths. 

— Boswortli  Field.  The  rising  that  took  place  was  un- 
fortunate. Richmond,  who  had  arrived  with  a fleet  to 
aid  the  movement,  was  driven  off  the  coast  by  a storm, 
and  compelled  to  return  to  France.  Buckingham,  un- 
able to  cross  the  high  waters  of  the  Severn  and  join 
the  confederates,  was  taken  and  executed.  Richard 
now  summoned  his  first  and  only  Parliament,  and  at- 
tempted by  wise  legislation  * to  turn  the  current  of 
public  opinion,  setting  so  strongly  against  him.  It 
was  too  late.  The  death  of  the  princes  defeated  the 
plans  of  the  conspirators,  but  a new  scheme  was  made 
to  elevate  Richmond  himself  to  the  throne,  and  to  bring 
about  his  marriage  with  Elizabeth,  eldest  daughter  of 
Edward  IV.,  thus  uniting  the  rival  houses,  and  rallying 
to  the  support  of  Richmond  the  adherents  of  both. 
Richard  tried  to  forestall  a scheme  so  dangerous  to  his 
power,  by  one  attempt  to  marry  Elizabeth  to  his  own 

* Among  others  there  were  statutes  masiug  unlawful  the  exaction  of  “be- 
nevolences,”— establishing  a protective  tariff,  but  allowing  the  free  importa- 
ti  >n  of  books,  — forbidding  the  seizure  of  the  goods  of  persons  suspected  of 
crime  belore  conviction,  and  allowing  such  persons  to  be  liberated  on  bail, — 
giving  freedom  to  all  the  serfs  still  left  on  the  royal  estates,  — legalizing  the 
Bale  of  estates  regardless  of  the  entail,  a statute  that  encouraged  the  breaking 
up  of  large  estates,  and  the  wider  distribution  of  landed  property  among  the 
middle  and  lower  classes,  usually  accredited  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 


120 


RICHARD  III. 


soil,  but  the  latter  suddenly  dying,  by  another,  to  es- 
pouse her  himself,  from  which  he  was  deterred  by  the 
force  of  public  opinion. 

In  the  meantime,  Richmond  was  busy  reorganizing 
his  expedition,  and  word  soon  came  that  he  had  sailed 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Seine.  Richard  took  his  stand  at 
Nottingham,  a central  point,  and,  with  horsemen  on  al\ 
the  roads,  awaited  the  beacon-lights  on  the  distent  hill- 
tops that  were  to  signalize  the  time  and  place  of  Rich- 
mond’s landing.  August  7th  1485,  the  expedition 
entered  Milford  Haven,  and  a landing  was  effected. 
On  the  22d,  the  opposing  armies  met  on  the  Field  of 
Bosworth.  In  the  midst  of  the  conflict,  Lord  Stanley 
went  over  to  Richmond  writh  all  his  forces.  Northum- 
berland followed,  when  Richard,  with  a cry  of  "trea- 
son, treason ! ” rushed  into  the  thickest  of  the  fight, 
with  the  desperate  resolve  to  conquer  or  to  die.  At- 
tempting to  strike  down  his  rival,  Richmond,  into 
whose  very  presence  he  had  cut  his  way,  he  was  sur- 
rounded and  slain.  His  golden  crown,  that  had  rolled 
under  a hawthorn-bush  when  he  fell,  was  found  and 
placed  upon  the  head  of  Richmond,  on  the  battle-field, 
and  in  the  presence  of  the  whole  army.  There  was 
great  rejoicing  throughout  England,  when  it  was 
known  that  the  hated  king  had  paid  with  his  life  the 
penalty  of  his  crimes.  The  Wars  of  the  Roses  and  the 
reign  of  the  House  of  York  ended  together  on  Bos- 
worth Field. 

Character  of  Rickard.  It  is  difficult  to  make  a just 
estimate  of  the  character  of  Richard  III.,  good  authori- 
ties differ  so  widely  in  their  views  of  him.  Until  recent- 
ly, he  has  been  regarded  as  a monster  of  wickedness,  and 


RICHARD  III. 


121 


without  a redeeming  quality.  But  his  apologists  af- 
firm, that  the  historians  and  dramatists,  from  whom  we 
have  derived  our  impressions,  living  in  the  Tudor 
period,  and  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  Tudor  sov- 
ereigns, painted  Richard’s  character  in  colors  alto- 
gether too  dark.  There  is  no  doubt,  that  mere  suspi- 
cions * of  crime  on  the  part  of  Richard  have  grown 
into  a positive  belief  in  his  guilt,  that  his  bad  qualities 
and  wicked  deeds  have  been  paraded  in  all  their  de- 
formity, and  his  good  qualities  and  worthy  deeds  passed 
] ightly  over.  He  showered  benefits  on  those  who  served 
him,  and  performed  many  acts  of  kindness  and  justice. 
He  restored  to  the  family  of  Hastings  the  forfeited 
estates,  secured  her  jointure  to  the  widow  of  Rivers, 
and  provided  for  the  widow  and  daughters  of  Edward 
IV.,  who  had  taken  sanctuary  at  Wstminster,  when 
Edward  V.  went  to  the  Tower.  He  inspired  more  wise 
legislation  in  the  single  session  of  his  Parliament,  than 
can  be  found  in  the  records  of  any  previous  reign  since 
Edward  I.  — legislation  that  had  the  ring  of  liberty  in 
it.  As  a ruler  merely,  he  compares  favorably  with  the 
kings  of  that  period.  But  as  to  his  character  as  a man,  it 
seems  difficult  to  reverse  the  verdict  of  history.  The 
historians  of  the  Tudor  period,  though  partial,  recorded 

* The  belief  that  Richard  murdered  Henry  VI.  with  his  own  hand,  and  drown- 
ed the  Duke  of  Clarence,  his  older  brother,  in  a butt  of  Malmsey  wine,  seemed 
to  rest  in  the  fact  that  he  was  known  to  be  in  the  Tower  when  they  were  re- 
ported to  have  died ; and  the  belief  that  he  was  the  one  who  stabbed  the  son 
of  Henry  VI.  after  the  battle  of  Tewkesbury,  rested  on  the  fact  that  he  was 
known  to  be  present,  but  Hastings  and  Clarence  were  also  present.  The  be- 
lief that  he  put  out  of  the  way  Anna,  his  wife,  to  make  room  for  Elizabeth, 
rested  on  the  fact  that  she  died  very  conveniently  for  his  plans,  although 
rather  suspicious  remarks  are  accredited  to  Elizabeth,  in  substance  that 
“ the  better  part  of  February  had  passed  and  she  feared  the  Queen  would 
never  die.”  The  Queen  died  about  the  middle  of  March. 


122 


RICHARD  III. 


and  reflected  the  opinions  of  Richard’s  own  contempo- 
raries, the  public  sentiment  of  Richard’s  own  times  ; 
and  public  sentiment,  though  not  infallible,  is,  in  the 
long  run,  a truthful  mirror  of  the  characters  of  men. 

Richard  began  his  public  career  about  the  year  1471, 
and  continued  for  fourteen  years  to  be  actively  engaged 
in  public  affairs,  twelve  in  the  service  of  his  brother, 
Edward  IV.,  and  two  as  an  actual  sovereign.  Almost 
his  first  recorded  public  act  was  one  of  heartless  cruelty. 
A young  man  of  less  than  twenty  years,  lie  was  one  of 
two  judges  that  condemned  to  death  so  many  Lancas- 
trian nobles  after  the  battle  of  Tewkesbury,  when  they 
had  been  induced  to  leave  the  sanctuary,  to  which  they 
had  fled,  by  a promise  of  pardon. 

With  the  death  of  the  princes  the  feeling  against 
Richard  became  intense  and  universal.  It  was  evident 
that  personal  ambition  was  his  sole  inspiring  motive. 
Splendid  talents  and  the  most  untiring  energy  were  re- 
morselessly devoted  to  one  fixed  purpose,  to  become 
King  of  England.  As  best  suited  his  policy,  he  could 
assume  the  most  daring  effrontery  and  boldly  strike 
down  those  who  stood  in  his  way ; or,  resorting  to  the 
arts  of  dissimulation,  remove  them  by  the  hand  of  the 
secret  assassin.  Henry  VIII.  destroyed  a hundred 
lives  to  Richard’s  one  ; but  he  did  not  inspire  half  the 
terror,  for  Henry’s  judicial  murders  were  perpetrated 
under  the  color  of  law  and  in  the  light  of  day.  Sim- 
ply to  secure  his  throne,  Henry  VII.  put  out  of  the 
way,  with  a form  of  trial,  an  unoffending  royal  prince, 
without  exciting  universal  abhorrence. 

There  is  nothing  from  which  human  nature  so  in- 
stinctively shrinks  as  a deed  of  darkness,  no  being  it 


RICHARD  III. 


123 


so  abhors  as  an  assassin  or  his  employer ; and  it  was 
the  settled  belief  in  Richard’s  almost  Satanic  capacity 
for  deeds  of  darkness,  that  inspired  all  England  with 
such  a dread  of  him, and  that  has  given  to  his  character 
on  the  page  of  history  a color  of  such  unexampled 
blackness. 


CHAPTER  VIIL 


Tudor  Family,  1485  to  1603  — 118  years. 

HENRY  VII.  MARY. 

HENRY  VIII.  ELIZABETH. 

EDWARD  VI. 

Henry  VII.,  1485  to  1509—24  years.  Tudor. 

Union  of  York  and  Lancaster.  That  Henry  was  a 
descendant  of  John  of  Gaunt,*  and  an  acknowledged 
usurper,  would,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  have  en- 
dangered his  throne  ; but  his  opportune  marriage  with 
Elizabeth,  a York  princess,  entirely  appeased  the  jeal- 
ousy of  the  House  of  York,  while  the  satisfaction  of 
the  people  at  the  overthrow  of  Richard  fully  reconciled 
them  to  the  usurpation.  This  union  of  the  Roses  was 
a source  of  great  strength,  not  only  to  Henry  but  to  all 
the  Tudor  sovereigns. 

Lambert  Simnel.  The  only  attempts  worthy  of  note 
to  disturb  the  new  house  were  made  by  two  impostors, 
Lambert  Simnel,  son  of  a joiner  of  Oxford,  and  Per- 
kin Warbeck,  son  of  a merchant  of  Tournay.  Simnel 
claimed  to  be  Edward,  Earl  of  Warwick,  escaped  from 
prison,  although  at  that  very  moment  the  real  Warwick 
lay  in  a dungeon  in  the  Tower,  to  which  he  had  been 

*It  will  be  remembered  that  by  the  Treaty  of  Troyes,  Henry  V.  received  in 
marriage  the  hand  of  Catherine,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  the  crazy  king  of  France, 
and  that  after  Henry’s  death,  his  widow  married  Owen  Tudor,  a Welsh  chief- 
tain, by  whom  she  had  a son.  This  son  married  a descendant  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster.  The  issue  of  this  marriage  was  Henry  Tudor, 
Earl  of  Richmond,  now  Henry  VII.  Hence  the  name  Tudor. 

(124) 


HENRY  VII. 


125 


transferred  by  Henry.  Landing  in  England  with  a 
force  chiefly  of  Irish,  lie  was  beaten  and  taken  captive 
in  the  battle  of  Stoke.  As  an  expression  of  the  king’s 
contempt  for  the  imposition  he  had  practiced,  Simnel 
was  made  a scullion  in  the  royal  kitchen,  but  was  af- 
terwards promoted  to  the  office  of  falconer  to  the  king. 

Perkin  Warbeck.  Warbeck,  a more  dangerous  but 
not  less  real  impostor,  personated  Richard,  the  younger 
of  the  smothered  princes,  claiming  that  he  too  had 
escaped  from  the  Tower,  and  had  now  come  forward  to 
assert  his  rights.  Ho  visited  a number  of  foreign 
Courts,  and  had  a variety  of  interesting  adventures, 
being  crowned  as  a real  prince  at  Dublin,  furnished 
with  a royal  body-guard  at  Paris,  patronized  as  the 
" True  White  Rose  ” by  the  Duchess  of  Burgundy,  and 
supplied  with  men  and  money,  and  wedded  to  a royal 
wife , * by  James  of  Scotland.  After  two  fruitless  in- 
vasions, the  one  from  Scotland  under  the  lead  of  the 
Scottish  king,  and  the  other  from  the  west,  supported  by 
the  Cornishmen,  Warbcck  was  deserted  by  all  his  fol- 
lowers and  traced  to  the  Sanctuary  f of  Beaulieu,  in 

* This  was  Lady  Catherine  Gordon,  a member  of  the  royal  house  of  Stuart. 
She  was  famed  for  personal  beauty  and  amiable  traits  of  character.  When 
Warbeck  entered  upon  his  dangerous  career,  he  placed  his  wife  for  safe-keep- 
ing in  the  Castle  of  St.  Michael’s  Mount.  After  his  defeat,  a body  of  horse- 
men surrounded  the  castle,  and  compelled  its  surrender.  Even  the  cold, 
practical  king  was  touched  by  Catherine's  devotion  to  her  husband,  and  gave 
her  an  honorable  place  near  the  person  of  the  queen.  The  name,  White  Rose, 
by  which  she  came  to  be  known,  though  suggested  by  the  false  claims  of 
her  husband,  was  given  as  a tribute  to  her  beauty. 

t Sanctuaries  were  consecrated  places,  wThere  criminals  could,  for  a limited 
time,  find  shelter  when  pursued.  They  were  analogous  to  the  temples  of 
refuge  among  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  the  cities  of  refuge  among  the  Jews. 
In  England,  as  early  as  the  seventh  century,  churches,  and  in  some  cases 
their  grounds,  were  set  apart  for  sanctuary  purposes.  Sometimes  a stone 
seat  was  placed  beside  the  altar,  where  the  person  of  the  fugitive  was  as 
sacred  as  the  altar  itself.  Though  the  sanctuary  might  be  surrounded,  and  the 


126 


IIENRY  VII. 


the  New  Forest.  Induced  to  surrender,  he  was  thrown 
into  the  Tower,  and  afterwards  hanged  at  Tyburn,  on 
the  charge  of  planning  an  insurrection  with  the  young 
Earl  of  Warwick,  his  fellow-prisoner.  Warwick  was  also 
executed,  not  because  he  was  guilty  of  any  offence  worthy 
of  death,  but  because  he  was  the  last  male  Plantagenct, 
and  a source  of  possible  danger  to  the  throne  of  Henry. 

The  Statute  ef  Allegiance.  The  attempts  made  on 
the  throne,  though  not  very  grave,  led  Parliament  to 
define  by  statute  the  allegiance  of  the  subject.  It  was 
enacted  that  no  one  should  be  punished  for  allegiance 
to  the  reigning  king,  whether  he  be  king  "dejure” 
(by  right),  or  king  "de  facto”  (in  fact).  This  was 
designed  to  guard  against  such  wholesale  executions, 
in  case  of  a change  in  the  dynasty,  as  followed  the  fluc- 
tuations of  the  Poses,  when  men  were  adjudged  trai- 
tors one  day  for  adhering  to  York,  and  beheaded  the 
next  for  following  Lancaster. 

The  Discovery  of  America.  The  reign  of  Henry 
VII.  marks  the  era  of  discovery.  When  Columbus  re- 
turned to  Spain,  under  whose  auspices  he  had  sailed  in 
1492,  and  the  startling  news  flew  from  port  to  port  that 
a new  world  had  been  discovered  far  to  the  westward, 
it  was  like  a busrle  blast  in  the  midst  of  a slumbering 
army.  The  maritime  nations  of  Europe  awoke  to  a 

criminal  forced  by  hunger  to  surrender  himself,  he  had  the  right  of  “ abjuration 
of  the  realm ; ” that  is,  he  could  go  before  the  proper  authority  any  time  within 
forty  days,  confess  his  crime, and  make  oath  to  quit  the  realm  and  not  return 
without  the  consent  of  the  king.  In  that  case  he  was  protected  until  he  could 
embark  for  some  foreign  country.  Traitors  were  deprived  of  the  right  of 
sanctuary  in  134,  criminals  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  insolvent  debtors 
in  1607.  But  in  Scotland,  the  Palace  and  Abbey  of  Holyrood  still  remain  a 
sanctury  for  poor  debtors.  Persons  not  criminals,  whose  lives  were  in  dan- 
ger, olten  took  shelter  in  the  sanctuaries. 


HENRY  VII. 


127 


spirit  of  enterprise  and  inquiry  they  had  never  known 
before.  National  pride  and  jealousy,  and  individ- 
ual love  of  glory  and  adventure,  sent  expedition  after 
expedition  out  into  the  broad  and  hitherto  dreaded 
Atlantic,  on  its  wonder-seeking  mission.  The  printing 
press,*  invented  just  before,  aided  in  the  general  awak- 
ing. The  story  of  the  voyage  of  Amerigo  Vespucci, 
published  in  Strasburg  in  1505,  was  circulated  through- 
out Europe,  stimulating  still  more  the  thirst  for  dis- 
covery. When  the  first  flush  of  wonder  and  excite- 
ment had  passed  away,  and  the  public  curiosity  in 
regard  to  the  new-found  lands  had  been  partially  sat- 
isfied, dreams  of  empire,  schemes  of  profitable  trade, 
and  a wild  greed  for  gold,  became  permanent  incentives 
to  individual  and  national  enterprise.  In  original  dis- 
covery, England  was  second  only  to  Spain,  sending 
out  an  expedition  under  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot, 
that  reached,  in  1497,  the  main  land  of  North  America. 
The  same  year  an  expedition,  fitted  out  by  the  Portu- 
guese, under  Vasco  cli  Gama,  doubled  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  opened  a new  way  by  water  to  the 
commerce  of  India. 

The  Revival  of  Letters.  The  Art  of  Printing  had 
quickened  the  spirit  of  inquiry  in  other  directions. 
There  was  in  England  a great  revival  of  letters.  On 
the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  in  1453, 

* William  Caxton  learned  tlie  Art  of  Printing  while  in  Holland,  where,  in 
1171  he  jointed  a book  entitled  “ The  Recuv ell  of  the  Ilifitoryes  of  Troye.”  lie 
brought  his  press  to  England  in  1473,  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  and  the  next  year 
published  a work  entitled  “ The  Game  and  Playe  of  Chess.”  Long  before  the 
Christian  Era  the  Chinese  were  familiar  with  block  printing,  and  its  use  in 
Germany  dates  from  the  year  1138.  Gutenberg  invented  cut  metal  types  in 
1414;  Schaeffer,  types  cast  in  hollow  moulds  in  1452. 


128 


HENItY  VII. 


many  of  the  learned  men  of  Greece  found  an  asylum 
in  Italy.  Thither  Hocked  students  from  all  quarters, 
among  whom,  from  England,  were  Grocyn,  Linacrc, 
Colet  and  Erasmus.  On  their  return  to  England,  fired 
with  zeal,  a new  enthusiasm  was  awakened  in  the  study 
of  Grecian  and  Roman  literature  ; and  the  Bible,  that, 
in  rare  and  costly  manuscript,  had  been  accessible  to 
only  a privileged  few,  reproduced  in  cheap  editions,  in 
print,  was  brought  within  the  reach  of  many.  Men 
began  to  think  for  themselves,  not  only  in  philosophy 
and  science  ‘but  in  politics  and  religion.  With  the 
spread  of  knowledge,  superstition  began  to  lose  its 
power.  The  minds  of  men  were  gradually  enlarged 
and  prepared  for  that  second  and  greater  reformation 
that  ere  long  broke  out  in  England  with  such  irresisti- 
ble power. 

And  we  find  here,  too,  the  beginning  of  modern  civil- 
ization, based  not  on  the  essential  slavery  of  the  Feudal 
System,  as  was  the  mediaeval,  but  on  the  growing  in- 
telligence and  increasing  importance  of  the  masses  of 
the  people. 

The  Character  and  Policy  of  Henry.  With  little 
love  for  learning  himself,  Henry  had  looked  with  an 
eye  of  cold  suspicion  on  the  signs  of  a new  intellectual 
life  brightening  all  around  him.  Even  the  discovery 
of  America  hardly  disturbed  the  impassive  king.  He 
had  been  willing,  indeed,  that  the  Cabots  should  sail 
on  a voyage  of  discovery,  at  their  own  expense,  and 
he  showed  some  appreciation  of  their  grand  achieve- 
ment, by  rewarding  them  with  a present  of  ten  pounds 
when  they  returned  and  laid  a new  world  at  his  feet. 


IIENRY  VI T. 


129 


llcnry  was  business-like  and  miserly.  lie  kept  two 
lawyers  busy  finding  " cases”  and  exacting  fines.  Ob- 
solete statutes,  forgotten  tenures,  and  petty  violations 
of  law,  were  so  many  drag-nets  that  swept  into  the 
courts  multitudes  of  men,  whose  fines  poured  into  the 
royal  treasury  a constant  stream  of  wealth.  He  revived 
" benevolences,5'  but  improved  upon  the  plan  of  Ed- 
ward IV.,  who  sought  gifts  only  from  the  rich,  by  ex- 
acting them  from  the  poor  as  well.*  He  omitted  no 
opportunity  to  grasp  the  estates  of  those  attainted,  and 
made  a large  income  from  the  rigid  execution  of  the 
Statute  of  Liveries. 

In  feudal  times  the  castles  of  the  barons  were  like 
armed  camps.  Crowds  of  idle  retainers,  feeding  on  the 
bounty  of  their  lordly  masters,  were  ever  ready,  at  their 
bidding,  to  storm  a castle  or  menace  a throne.  The 
Statute  of  Liveries,  enacted  in  a preceding  reign,  was 
designed  to  break  up  these  great  military  establish- 
ments. Having  fallen  into  disuse,  it  was  revived  and 
executed  by  Henry,  with  fine  and  forfeiture,  f A new 
court,  called  the  " Star  Chamber,”  was  appointed  to 

* By  a cunning  device,  called  from  its  author,  “ Morton’s  fork,”  he  demanded 
money  of  those  who  made  a display  in  their  style  of  living,  for  display  was 
evidence  of  wealth,  and  exacted  gifts  from  those  who  made  no  display,  on 
the  ground  that  such  must  have  grown  rich  by  their  economy. 

t Bacon  tells  an  amusing  story  highly  illustrative  of  Ilenrv’s  avaricious 
character There  remaineth  to  this  day  a report  that  the  king  was,  ou  a 
time,  entertained  by  the  Earl  of  Oxford,  — that  was  his  principal  servant, 
both  for  peace  and  war,  — nobly  and  sumptuously,  at  his  castle  at  Ilenningham. 
And  at  the  king’s  going  away,  the  earl’s  servants  stood,  in  a seemly  manner, 
in  their  livery  coats-,  with  cognisances,  ranged  on  both  sides,  and  made  the 
king  a lane.  The  king  called  the  earl  to  him,  and  said : ‘ My  lord,  I have  heard 
much  of  your  hospitality,  but  I see  it  is  greater  than  the  speech.  These  hand- 
some gentlemen  and  yeomen,  which  I see  on  both  sides  of  me,  are  sure  your 
menial  servants.’  The  carl  smiled,  and  said,  ‘ It  may  please  your  grace,  that 
were  not  for  mine  case.  They  are  most  of  them  my  retainers,  that  are  come 


130 


II EXRY  VII. 


have  special  reference  to  cases  coming  under  this  stat- 
ute,— a court  that,  being  solely  under  the  control  of  the 
king,  became,  in  later  reigns,  the  instrument  of  great 
oppression.  By  sharp  practice  and  rigid  economy, 
Henry  was  able  to  amass  an  immense  fortune  (£10,- 
000,000  present  value)  for  his  son  and  successor  to 
squander. 

Though  avaricious  by  nature,  there  was  a policy  in 
Henry’s  desire  to  be  rich.  He  had  one  grand  pur- 
pose ever  in  view, — the  establishment  of  the  Tudor 
throne  on  a safe  and  solid  basis.  He  well  knew  that 
the  great  power  of  the  Commons  lay  in  their  control 
of  the  public  funds,  and  that  the  possession  of  abun- 
dant means  on  the  part  of  the  king  was  the  royal  road 
to  independence.  He  exerted  himself,  therefore,  to 
obtain  money  without  appealing  to  Parliament,  and 
was  so  successful  that  there  was  but  one  session  of 
Parliament  during  the  last  thirteen  years  of  his  reign. 

He  tried  still  further  to  fortify  his  house,  by  connect- 
ing it,  through  marriage  alliances,  with  the  reigning 
families  of  Europe.  His  son  Arthur  was  married  to 
Catherine  of  Arragon,  a Spanish  princess,  and  his 
daughter  Margaret  to  James  Stuart,  the  King  of  Scot- 
land. Henry  died  in  1509,  and  was  buried  at  West- 
minster, in  the  magnificent  chapel  which  he  himself 
had  built  and  which  still  bears  his  name.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Henry. 

to  do  me  service  at  such  a time  as  this,  and  chiefly  to  see  your  grace.’  The 
king  started  a little  and  said:  ‘ By  my  faith,  my  lord,  1 thank  you  for  your 
good  cheer,  but  I may  not  endure  to  have  my  laws  broken  in  my  sight.  My  at. 
torney  must  speak  with  you.*  And  it  is  part  of  the  report,  that  the  earl  com 
pounded  for  no  less  than  fifteen  thousand  marks.” 


HENRY  VIII. 


131 


^^Henry  VIII.,  1509  to  1547  — 38  years.  Tudor. 

Character  of  Henry  VIII.  Henry  VIII.  came  to 
the  throne  under  circumstances  peculiarly  favorable. 
Representing  in  his  own  person  the  rival  houses  of 
York  and  Lancaster,  he  received  their  cordial  and 
united  support.  Henry  was  eighteen  years  of  age,  a 
handsome,  generous,  and  popular  prince.  But  he 
changed  much  in  disposition  as  he  grew  older.  Nat- 
urally passionate  and  impulsive,  and  unused  to  self- 
control,  he  became,  with  opposition,  malignant  and  un- 
relenting. He  was  as  prodigal  as  his  father  had  been 
penurious,  and  wasted  in  a few  years  the  great  fortune 
he  inherited.  One  of  the  first  official  acts  of  the  young 
king  was  designed  to  satisfy  popular  clamor.  Empson 
and  Dudley,  the  hated  lawyers  of  Henry  VII.,  were 
brought  to  the  scaffold  on  a charge  of  treason. 

Foreign  Affairs.  The  foreign  wars  of  this  reign 
were  comparatively  unimportant.  Henry  has  been 
called  a good  soldier,  but  a bad  general.  Both  the 
king  and  his  principal  minister,  Thomas  Wolsey,  were 
actuated  more  by  personal  than  national  considerations, 
in  the  foreign  relations  of  the  state.  At  one  time 
Henry  was  ambitious  to  occupy  the  vacant  German 
throne;  at  another,  Wolsey  aspired  to  fill  the  vacant 
papal  chair ; and  each  sought  to  shape  the  foreign 
policy  of  England  to  meet  his  own  interests.  In  spite 
of  the  failures  of  his  predecessors,  Henry  dared  to 
dream  of  the  conquest  of  France.  His  campaign  in 
that  countiy,  in  1513,  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  the 
battle  of  Guinesfate,  which  the  French  themselves 
laughingly  named  the  "Battle  of  the  Spurs,”  from  the 
amusing  haste  with  which  their  cavalry,  not  whipt 


132 


HENRY  VIII. 


but  well-scared,  galloped  off  the  battle-field.  During 
Henry’s  absence  in  France,  an  event  occurred  in  Eng- 
land of  a far  more  serious  character. 

The  Scots  were  in  league  with  the  French.  Invad- 
ing England  under  the  command  of  their  king,  James 
IV.,  they  were  met  at  Flodden,  the  last  of  the  Cheviot 
Hills,  by  an  army  under  the  Earl  of  Surrey.  The 
bloody  battle  that  followed  left  Scotland  without  a king, 
and  almost  without  a nobility.  Ten  thousand  gallant 
Scotch  knights  fell  on  Flodden  Field.  Being  deserted 
by  his  allies,  Henry  made  peace  with  the  French  king, 
Louis  XII.,  giving  the  latter  in  marriage  the  hand  of 
his  eldest  sister  Mary.*  In  1520  there  was  a meeting 
between  Henry  and  the  new  king  of  France*  Francis  I. , 
in  English  territory.  The  place  of  the  meeting  has 
been  called  the  " Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,”  from  the 
magnificence  of  the  display.  The  most  important  of 
Henry’s  foreign  relations  was  with  the  Pope  of  Rome. 

The  Divorce  of  Catherine  of  Arragon.  Henry  had 
married  Catherine  of  Arragon,  his  brother  Arthur’s 
widow,  soon  after  coming  to  the  throne.  lie  had  been 
betrothed  to  her  by  his  father  years  before,  a special 
dispensation  being  obtained  from  the  pope,  as  such  a 
union  was  forbidden  by  the  Levitical  law  and  a canon 
of  the  church.  Nearly  twenty  years  after  this  marriage 

*Louis  XII.  soon  died,  and  Henry  sent  Charles  Francis  Brandon,  Duke  of 
Suffolk,  to  France, to  bring  his  widowed  sister  back  to  England.  Now  it  hap- 
pened that  Brandon  was  an  old  and  accepted  lover  of  Mary’s,  and  her  wishes 
had  not  been  consulted  by  Henry  when  ho  gave  her  to  the  French  king; 
princesses’ wishes  rarely  were  in  those  oi  l times.  Taking  advantage  of  so 
favorable  an  opportunity,  Brandon  and  Mary  were  married  in  France  before 
they  returned  to  England.  Henry  was,  at  first,  very  angry , but  soon  forgave 
them.  They  had  a daughter,  Lady  Frances  Brandon,  who  married  Henry 
Grey,  Marquis  oi  Dorset.  Lady  Jane  Grey,  whose  sad  history  we  are  soon  to 
relate,  was  the  offspring  of  this  marriage. 


IIENRY  VIII. 


133 


had  taken  place,  Henry  began  to  have  what  lie  called 
conscientious  scruples  about  its  legality.  lie  coupled 
these  scruples  with  his  "despair  of  having  male  issue 
by  Catherine,  to  inherit  the  realm.”  lie  had  but  one 
living  child,  a daughter,  Mary.  Another  dispensation 
was  now  required  to  dissolve  his  union  with  Catherine, 
before  he  could  form  a new  alliance.  Cardinal  Wolsey 
was  commissioned  to  secure  it.  Charles  V.,  Emperor 
of  Germany,  Avas  a nephew  to  Catherine.  lie  had  re- 
cently made  Avar  on  the  pope,  taking  Rome  and  making 
the  pope  his  prisoner.  For  the  pope  to  give  the  de- 
sired dispensation  would  offend  the  emperor  ; to  refuse 
it  would  displease  Henry,  and  so  the  pope  temporized. 
Wolsey  was  as  much  puzzled  as  the  pope  to  knoAV 
Avhat  to  do.  To  grant  the  divorce  on  his  own  respon- 
sibility Avould  offend  his  superior  at  Rome  ; to  refuse  it 
Avould  bring  upon  himself  the  Avrath  of  the  king,  and 
so  Wolsey  temporized.  For  two  years  was  the  impa- 
tient king  kept  in  suspense,  his  impatience  made  all 
the  greater  by  the  violence  of  his  passion  for  Anne 
Boleyn,  a pretty  maid  of  honor  to  the  queen.  A court 
had  been  organized  in  1529,  under  Wolsey  and  Cam- 
peggio,  an  Italian  cardinal,  to  try  the  case  in  England. 
It  sat  nearly  tAvo  months  without  result,  when  the  case 
was  ordered  by  the  pope  to  be  tried  at  Rome.  This 
sealed  the  fate  of  Wolsey,  and  made  a rupture  with  the 
pope  inevitable.  Wolsey,  stripped  of  all  his  temporal 
honors  and  offices,  Avas  ordered  into  retirement  at  his 
bee  of  York. 

Cardinal  Wolsey.  Cardinal  Wolsey  was  the  son  of  a 
butcher,  and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  Brilliant  talents 
had  brought  him  to  the  notice  of  Henry  VII.,  from 


134 


HENTtY  VIII. 


whom  he  had  received  the  appointment  of  royal  chap- 
lain. lie  afterwards  attracted  the  attention  of  Henry 
VIII.,  who  raised  him  from  one  position  to  another, 
until  he  became  Lord  Chancellor  of  the  kingdom,  and 
Cardinal  in  the  church,  and  finally  Papal  Legate. 

For  twenty  years  lie  had  stood  at  the  head  of  church 
and  state,  the  most  powerful,  if  not  the  most  able, 
subject  England  ever  had.  His  genius  was  unequalled 
for  breadth  or  versatility.  Ho  could  play  the  courtier, 
and  amuse  the  idle  hours  of  the  pleasure-loving  king 
with  ceaseless  sallies  of  wit  and  mirth,  or  lie  could 
act  the  statesman,  and  guide  with  consummate  skill  the 
most  intricate  affairs  of  the  government.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  follow  him  as  he  leaves  the  scenes  of  his 
former  pomp  and  splendor,  and  devotes  himself  with 
simplicity  and  meekness  to  the  ordinary  duties  of  a 
parish  priest,  visiting  the  sick  and  dying,  giving  alms 
to  the  poor  and  needy,  and  ministering  in  countless 
ways  to  the  temporal  and  spiritual  wants  of  his  grateful 
people.  In  about  a year,  the  king  ordered  his  arrest 
on  a charge  of  high  treason.  He  had  committed  no 
new  offence,  and  had  been  pardoned  for  the  old  one  ; but 
he  had  an  unforgiving  enemy  in  Anne  Boleyn. 

In  charge  of  the  keeper  of  the  Tower,  Wolsey  com- 
menced his  last  journey  towards  London.  He  was 
taken  ill  on  the  road.  On  reaching  Leicester  Abbey, 
conscious  that  his  end  was  drawing  near,  lie  said  to 
the  Father  Abbot,  as  the  latter  gave  him  a kindly  wel- 
come, "I  am  come  hither  to  leave  my  bones  among 
you.”  This  was  Saturday  night.  The  following  Tues- 
day, November  29th,  1531,  when  at  the  point  of  death, 
he  gave  utterance  to  those  ever  memorable  words,  "If 


HENRY  VIII. 


135 


I had  served  God  as  diligently  as  I have  done  the  king, 
he  would  not  have  given  me  over  in  my  gray  hairs.”* 
The  ingratitude  of  Henry  VIII.  was  the  basest  of  his 
many  faults.  lie  could  crush  long-tried  and  faithful 
servants, with  as  little  feeling  as  he  would  tread  upon 
the  meanest  reptile. 

The  Divorce  of  Catherine  of  xVrragon  Accomplished. 

The  gordian  knot  of  the  divorce  was  finally  cut  by  the 
ingenuity  of  Bishop  Cranmer,  who  suggested  to  the 
delighted  king  the  reference  of  the  whole  question  to 
the  universities  of  Europe.  The  pope  forbade  the 
divorce  of  Catherine  and  the  marriage  with  Anne 
Boleyn,  on  pain  of  excommunication.  But  a majority 
of  the  universities,  through  bribery  or  menace,  decided 
in  Henry’s  favor,  and  Cranmer,  now  made  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  pronounced,  in  1533,  Henry’s  union  with 
Catherine  null  and  void.  Anne  Boleyn,  already  mar- 
ried to  the.king,  was  publicly  crowned  Queen  of  Eng- 
land. The  noble  Queen  Catherine,  who  had  resisted  to 
the  utmost  the  disgrace  and  injustice  heaped  upon  her, 
died  in  a few  years,  honored  for  her  virtues  aud  her 
piety. 

The  Oxford  Reformers.  We  return  once  more  to 
the  beginning  of  Henry’s  reign.  The  young  king, 
though  fond  of  pleasure  and  display,  was  scholarly  in 
his  tastes  and  well  educated,  and  carefully  fostered  the 
new  spirit  of  enterprise  and  mental  activity  among  his 

♦These  words,  addressed  to  Master  Kingston,  the  Constable  of  the  Tower, 
who  tiad  been  sent  by  the  king  to  convey  Wolsey  to  prison,  have  been  crystal- 
lized by  the  genius  of  ShaKspcarc: 

“ O Cromwell,  Cromwell, 

Had  I but  served  my  God  with  half  the  zeal 
I served  my  king,  He  would  not  in  mine  ago 
Have  left  me  naked  to  mine  enemies.” 


13G 


HENRY  VIII. 


people.  Colet,  who  had  been  made  Dean  of  St.  Paul’s 
by  Henry  VII.,  became,  under  the  present  king,  head 
of  a new  school  for  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek 
literature;  More  was  appointed  to  some  civil  office, 
and,  later,  at  the  fall  of  Wolscy,  to  the  chancellorship  ; 
Erasmus  received  a professorship  at  Cambridge.  These 
zealous  pioneers  in  the  new  world  of  thought  and  con- 
science, vigorously  applied  themselves  to  the  work  of 
reform. 

Erasmus.  Erasmus,  with  a moral  courage  that  re- 
minds us  of  Wickliffe,  wrote  book  after  book,  in  which 
he  aimed  at  reformation  in  politics  and  religion  as  well 
as  learning,  now  holding  up  to  ridicule  the  follies  of 
the  age,  now  to  scorn  and  contempt  the  corruptions  of 
the  church,  and  now  addressing  the  consciences  of  men 
in  the  most  tender  and  affecting  appeals.  In  his 
" Praise  of  Folly,”  he  makes  Folly,  dressed  in  cap  and 
bells,  describe,  in  a speech  to  her  associates,  the  re- 
ligious teachers  of  the  day,  the  old  school  men,  as 
"men  who  knew  all  about  things  of  which  St.  Paul 
was  ignorant,  could  talk  science  as  though  they  had 
been  consulted  when  the  world  was  made,  could  give 
you  the  dimensions  of  heaven  as  though  they  had  been 
there  and  measured  it  with  plumb  and  line,  men  who 
professed  universal  knowledge,  and  yet  had  not  time 
to  read  the  Gospels  or  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.”  But  the 
work  of  Erasmus  most  potent  in  its  influence,  was  his 
edition  of  the  New  Testament,  in  parallel  columns,  one 
in  Greek  and  the  other  in  Latin.  Several  editions  were 
required  to  meet  the  popular  demand.  Said  Erasmus, 
in  speaking  of  the  Scriptures,  in  his  preface,  "I  wish 
that  they  were  translated  into  all  languages,  so  as  to  be 


HENRY  VIII. 


137 


read  and  understood  not  only  by  Scots  and  Irishmen, 
but  even  by  Saracens  and  Turks.  I long  for  the  day 
when  the  husbandman  shall  sing  portions  of  them  to 
himself  as  lie  follows  the  plough,  when  the  weaver 
shall  hum  them  to  the  tunc  of  his  shuttle,  when  the 
traveller  shall  while  away  with  their  stories  the  weari- 
ness of  his  journey.” 

^ Thomas  More.  From  the  prophetic  pen  of  More, 
appeared  a work  entitled  " Utopia,”  or  Nowhere,  a 
satire  on  the  times,  especially  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 
Utopia  was  an  ideal  commonwealth,  which  an  imag- 
inary companion  of  Amerigo  Vespucci,  deserted  on 
the  American  continent,  found  somewhere  in  the  midst 
of  the  wilds.  It  had  wide  and  cleanly  streets,  com- 
fortable houses,  a system  of  public  schools  in  which 
every  child  received  a good-  education,  perfect  religious 
toleration, and  universal  suffrage,  though  with  a family, 
and  not  an  individual  ballot,  and  the  sole  object  of  the 
government  was  the  good  of  the  whole  people,  and  not 
the  pleasure  of  the  king.  Had  More’s  pseudo  voyager 
but  wandered  to  the  American  continent  a fewr  centuries 
later,  he  would  have  found  his  model  " Utopia”  a real 
and  not  an  ideal  republic. 

Opposition  to  the  Oxford  Reformers.  This  is  but 
a slight  glance  at  the  work  of  the  Oxford  Reformers, 
extending  through  a period  of  forty  years,  in  educating 
the  people  of  England  up  to  a higher  plane  of  intelli- 
gence, and  in  preparing  the  way  for  that  second  and 
greater  reformation  that  broke  out  in  Germany  under 
Luther  one  year  after  More  wrote  his  " Utopia,”  and 
in  England  soon  after.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that 
the  old  school  men  and  theologians  were  silent,  while 


138 


IIENRY  VIII. 


the  reformers  were  busy  removing  the  very  founda- 
tions of  their  mouldering  temples.  They  bitterly  op- 
posed the  reformation  at  every  step.  More  once  wrote 
to  Colet,  " No  wonder  your  school  raises  a storm,  for  it 
is  like  the  wooden  horse  tilled  with  armed  Greeks  for 
the  destruction  of  Troy.”  And  such  it  proved.  So 
popular  did  it  become  that  others  of  a similar  character 
followed ; and  it  is  said  that,  in  the  latter  part  of 
Henry’s  reign,  more  schools  were  founded  than  in  three 
centuries  before.  Repeated  attempts  were  made  to  de- 
stroy Colet;  once,  when,  from  the  royal  pulpit  and  in 
the  very  presence  of  the  king,  Colet  had  denounced 
the  French  wars,  in  which  the  king  had  enlisted  so 
heartily;  and  again,  when,  at  a convocation  of  bishops 
and  clergy,  being  appointed  to  deliver  the  opening  ser- 
mon, he  boldly  charged  many  of  them  with  living 
worldly  and  immoral  lives.  The  bishops  of  London, 
with  others,  lodged  a charge  of  heresy  against  him. 
Said  the  bluff  king  to  those  who  sought  his  help  against 
Colet,  "Let  every  man  have  his  own  doctor,  but  this 
man  is  the  doctor  for  me.”  To  Henry’s  protection  did 
the  Oxford  Reformers  owe  their  personal  safety,  and 
to  his  encouragement  was  the  New  Learning  indebted 
for  its  rapid  progress.  And  yet  the  very  men  he 
shielded  from  the  most  vindictive  enemies  he  hesitated 
not  to  destroy  at  their  slightest  opposition  to  his  own 
will. 

Martin  Luther  and  the  Reformation.  More  than  a 
century  had  passed  away  since  Wickliffe  inaugurated 
the  First  Reformation.  We  are  now  brought  to  the 
th  ‘eshold  of  the  second,  under  Luther,  on  whom 
\\  ickliffe’s  mantle  seemed  to  have  fallen.  Martin 


HENRY  VIII. 


139 


Luther  was  educated  for  the  law,  but  in  1505,  when 
twenty-two  years  of  age,  lie  became  a monk  in  the  mon- 
astery at  Erfurt,  and,  in  1508,  preacher  at  the  University 
of  Wittenburg,  lately  founded  by  the  Elector  of  Sax- 
ony. An  eye-witness  to  the  corruptions  of  the  church, 
and  convinced,  by  a study  of  the  Bible,  of  its  errors  in 
doctrine,  he  gradually  came  to  accept  "justification  by 
faith”  as  the  only  way  of  salvation.  Pope  Leo  X., 
ostensibly  to  raise  money  for  the  completion  of  the 
splendid  temple  of  St.  Peter,  offered  for  sale,  at  a fixed 
price,  indulgences  or  pardons  for  sin,  and  had  sent  his 
agents  all  over  Europe  to  find  purchasers.  In  1517, 
when  Wolsey  was  at  the  height  of  his  power,  and  just 
after  Erasmus  had  published  his  New  Testament,  Lu- 
ther, learning  that  Tetzel,  one  of  the  pope’s  agents, 
was  about  to  come  to  Wittenburg,  nailed  to  the  doors 
of  his  church  his  famous  Propositions,  denouncing  the 
whole  doctrine  of  indulgences,  and  the  next  day  (day 
of  All-Saints)  read  them  to  the  assembled  parish. 
Tetzel  was  forbidden  by  the  Elector,  Luther’s  friend 
and  protector,  to  enter  his  dominions.  There  was  a 
year  or  two  of  bitter  controversy  between  Luther  and 
the  pope,  during  which  the  former  boldly  defied  the 
latter,  publicly  burning  the  bull  of  excommunication 
issued  against  him.  Luther  was  then  summoned  for 
trial  before  the  Diet  of  Worms,  held  in  1521,  over 
which  the  German  Emperor  himself  presided.  Luther 
boldly  maintained  all  his  declarations  before  that  au- 
gust assembly,  refusing  again  and  again  to  recant  or 
abjure,  and  was  condemned  as  a heretic.  He  had  a safe 
pass  to  Wittenburg,  to  which  place  he  returned,  and 
henceforth  devoted  himself  to  the  work  he  had  under- 


140 


HENRY  VIII. 


taketf,  the  reformation  of  the  church.  The  emperor 
then  issued  his  edict  against  Luther,  consigning  him 
to  death  at  the  stake  ; hut  before  the  sentence  could  be 
executed,  all  Germany  was  ablaze  with  the  fires  of 
reformation  and  revolt,  and  the  emperor  had  little  time 
to  kindle  that  for  the  martyrdom  of  Luther. 

Thus  began  the  Great  Reformation,  but  it  did  not  end 
in  Germany.  We  are  soon  to  see  it  cross  the  English 
Channel,  and  separate  England  and  Scotland  from  the 
Papal  See.  Nor  does  it  cease,  till,  in  the  progress  of 
time,  it  has  brought  within  its  resistless  sweep  the 
kingdoms  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  Norway 
and  the  Netherlands. 

The  Reformation  in  England.  England  was  fully 
awake  to  the  events  occurring  in  Germany.  King 
Henry,  although  a friend  to  reform  in  the  church,  still 
held  to  its  principal  tenets.  While  the  Diet  of  Worms 
was  in  session,  he  had  written  a book  against  Luther, 
for  which,  in  gratitude,  the  pope  had  called  him  "De- 
fender of  the  Faith,”  a title  still  borne  by  the  sover- 
eigns of  England.  We  have  seen  how,  a little  later,  in 
1529,  a breach  had  occurred  between  the  king  and  the 
pope,  on  account  of  the  divorce  of  Catherine.-  This 
gradually  widened  into  complete  alienation,  and  Rome 
and  England,  bound  together  eight  hundred  years  by 
that  most  sacred  of  ties,  a common  faith,  were  sun- 
dered forever.  By  a series  of  parliamentary  enact- 
ments, beginning  in  1531,  annates  (the  first  year’s  in- 
come of  vacant  bishoprics)  to  Rome  were  abolished, 
all  appeals  to  the  pope  forbidden,  papal  jurisdiction 
over  England  extinguished,  and  finally,  in  1534,  the 
King  of  England  was  declared  to  be  the  Supreme  Head 


HENRY  VIII. 


141 


of  the  Church  of  England.  It  was  now  that  the  bull  of 
excommunication,  long  held  over  the  head  of  Henry, 
was  hurled  against  him.  But  the  Rubicon  had  been 
crossed,  and  there  was  no  alternative  but  a march  on 
Rome. 

Bishop  Fisher  and  Thomas  More  Executed.  Speech 
against  the  pope  was  no  longer  heresy ; but  denial  of 
Henry’s  Supremacy  was  made  high  treason.  For  the 
latter  offence  perished  on  the  scaflold,  in  1535,  Fisher, 
the  good  Bishop  of  Rochester,  who  came  to  the  scene 
of  his  death  with  a copy  of  the  New  Testament  in  his 
hand,  and  read,  as  he  knelt  to  lay  his  head  upon  the 
block,  the  words,  "This  is  life  eternal  to  know  Thee, 
the  only  true  God.”  For  this,  too,  perished  More,  one 
of  the  most  learned  men  in  Christendom,  who,  believ- 
ing the  pope  to  be  the  divinely  appointed  head  of  the 
church,  had  resigned  his  office  on  Henry’s  assumption 
of  Supremacy.  He  had  been  a life-long  reformer  ; but 
he  had  labored  for  a reform  of  the  church,  and  not 
separation  from  it.  The  Emperor  Charles  is  said  to 
have  exclaimed,  when  told  of  the  death  of  More,  "I 
would  rather  have  lost  the  best  city  in  my  dominions 
than  so  worthy  a counselor.” 

Henry  Supreme  in  Church  and  State.  All  the 
powers  of  pope  and  king  were  now  concentrated  in 
the  person  of  Henry.  He  dictated  the  utterances  of 
the  pulpit  as  well  as  the  enactments  of  parliament ; 
he  controlled  the  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  the  civil 
courts  ; he  declared  what  was  truth  and  what  heresy. 
Bishops  and  archbishops  held  their  places  only  at  his 
pleasure  ; and  into  his  hand  were  poured  the  vast  reve- 
nues that  for  centuries  had  flowed  so  steadily  to  the 


142 


HENRY  VIII. 


Vatican.  No  priest  could  preach  without  a royal 
license,  and  no  license  was  given  without  the  Oath  of 
Supremacy.  Every  priest  was  compelled  to  declare  to 
his  assembled  parish  their  absolution  from  allegiance  to 
the  pope,  and  the  duty  of  obedience  to  the  iicav  Head 
of  the  Church.  Thus  were  the  mute  and  bewildered 
people,  constrained  by  respect  for  law  on  the  one  hand, 
and  reverence  for  religion  on  the  other,  carried  peace- 
fully through  the  first  and  most  critical  step  of  a great 
religious  revolution.  In  other  nations  the  Reformation 
advanced  only  through  a sea  of  blood.  It  is  a perti- 
nent inquiry,  to  what  extent  were  the  peace  and  order 
that  marked  the  Reformation  in  England  due  to  the 
overshadowing  character  of  the  throne,  and  the  iron 
will  of  the  despot  that  occupied  it?  As  if  to  remove 
the  last  shadow  of  a limitation  to  the  authority  of  the 
king,  Parliament  enacted  that  royal  proclamations 
should  have  the  force  of  statutes;  and  it  is  affirmed, 
that  during  the  sessions  of  Parliament,  if  Henry’s 
name  were  but  mentioned,  in  his  absence,  the  mem- 
bers would  rise  and  bow  before  the  vacant  throne. 
Henry’s  next  step  was  to  reform  the  faith  and  practice 
of  the  church.  He  drew  up  with  his  own  hand  the 
articles  of  religion.*  These  showed  that  the  king  had 

* They  made  the  Bible  the  sole  ground  of  faith ; reduced  the  sacraments  from 
seven  to  three,  namely : Penance,  Baptism  and  the  Lord’s  Supper;  retained 
iransubstantiation  and  confession,  but  added  justification  by  faith;  and  re- 
jected pilgrimages,  purgatory,  indulgences,  the  worship  of  images  and  relics, 
and  masses  for  the  dead.  The  Ten  Commandments  and  the  Lord’s  Prayer 
were  required  to  be  taught  iu  every  school  and  family.  A copy  of  Tyndal’s 
Bible,  the  first  ever  translated  into  English,  revised  by  Coverdale  in  1535,  was 
ordered  to  be  chained  to  the  pillar  or  desk  of  every  church  in  England,  and  to 
be  open  to  the  reading  of  al).  In  1539,  a translation  of  the  Bible  was  made  by 
Cranmer. 


HENIIY  VIII. 


143 


taken  the  middle  ground  between  Protestants  * and 
Papists.  They  were  essentially  the  views  Erasmus 
had  so  long  labored  to  impress  upon  the  English  peo- 
ple. The  bishops  and  clergy  gradually  fell  into  the 
new  order  of  things,  but  the  monks  remained  unrecon- 
ciled. 

The  Suppression  of  the  Religious  Houses.  A com- 
mission was  appointed  to  visit  the  religious  houses. 
They  reported  a larger  part  of  them  as  corrupt  and  im- 
moral, and  so,  by  statute,  nunneries  and  monasteries 
were  broken  up,  their  inmates  being  turned  out  into 
the  world,  and  their  revenues  poured  into  the  royal 
treasury.  Ten  thousand  nuns  alone  were  made  home- 
less by  the  cruel  statute,  which  was  probably  inspired 
by  no  higher  motive  than  the  greed  of  the  king  for  the 
wealth  of  the  church.  At  the  same  time  the  tombs 
and  shrines  of  the  saints,  many  of  them  adorned  with 
costly  works  of  art  and  rich  with  the  gifts  of  countless 
pilgrims,  were  robbed  of  their  treasures  and  ruthlessly 
destroyed.  The  most  famous  of  these  was  the  tomb  of 
Thomas  a Beeket,  from  which  two  great  chests  of  gold 
and  jewels  were  borne  away  to  the  royal  coffers.  This 
was  followed  by  several  risings,  especially  among  the 

♦After  the  decision  of  the  Diet  of  Worms,  in  1521,  Charles  V.,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  issued  an  edict  against  Luther  and  the  Lutheran  heresy.  A quar- 
rel arose,  in  1526,  between  Charles  and  the  pope,  and  the  former  threw  hi-*  in- 
ti uence  against  the  latterin  the  Diet  of  Spires,  then  in  session,  and  the  follow- 
ing decree,  entirely  annulling  the  Edict  of  Worms,  was  issued:  “ Each  state 
should,  as  regards  the  Edict  of  Worms,  so  live,  rule,  and  bear  itself  as  it 
thought  it  could  answer  it  to  God  and  the  Emperor.”  The  different  German 
states  thus  beca&e  either  Lutheran  or  Catholic,  as  they  chose.  But  Charles 
soon  settled  his  quarrel  with  the  pope,  and,  as  a result,  the  second  Diet  of 
Spires,  held  in  1529,  re-enacted  the  Edict  of  Worms,  and  forbade  further  re- 
form without  the  sanction  of  a regular  council.  Against  this  decision  the 
Lutheran  princes  of  Germany  entered  their  “ protest,”  and  were  therefore 
called  4i  Protestants.” 


144 


HENRY  VIII. 


nobles  iii  the  north  and  west.  Those  were  readily  put 
down,  and  the  executions  that  followed  remind  us  of 
the  Wars  of  the  Hoses.  Henry’s  principal  minister, 
after  the  retirement  of  More,  was  Thomas  Cromwell. 
He  had  taken  service  with  Wolsev,  and  remained  his 
friend  to  the  last.  When  Wolsey  retired  in  disgrace  to 
his  See  of  York,  Cromwell  went  to  London  to  "make 
or  mar,”  as  lie  expressed  it.  It  was  Cromwell  who 
suggested  to  the  king  to  solve  the  Papal  problem,  by 
declaring  his  own  Supremacy.  lie  became  a member 
of  Parliament,  and  was  indefatigable  in  liis  efforts  to 
protect  and  save  Wolsey.  He  then  became  Henry’s 
chief  minister,  and,  when  Supremacy  had  been  achieved, 
Vicc-gerent  of  the  church. 

The  Bloody  Statute,  The  Reformation  had  advanced 
with  rapid  strides,  and  was  attended  with  many  excesses 
on  the  part  of  extremists.  A reaction  was  the  result ; 
and  this  led  to  the  enactment,  in  1539,  at  the  dictation 
of  the  king,  of  a statute  containing  six  articles, 
called  by  Fox  " the  whip  with  six  strings,”  re-affirming 
the  cardinal  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  church.  The 
penalty  of  death,  by  fire  or  the  scaffold,  hung  over  the 
heads  of  all  who  violated  the  terrible  statute.  The 
prisons  were  quickly  crowded  with  offenders.  Catho- 
lics were  burned  for  not  accepting  the  Protestant  head 
of  the  church,  and  Protestants  committed  to  the 
flames  for  rejecting  the  Catholic  faith.  The  execution 
of  this  statute  was  relaxed  after  a few  months,  else  it 
were  difficult  to  see  how  there  could  have  been  a con- 
sistent Protestant  or  Catholic  left  in  England. 

Henry’s  Wives.  Henry,  in  1509,  married  Catherine 
of  Arragc/i,  who  was  divorced  in  1533,  having  had  a 


HENRY  VIII. 


145 


daughter,  Mary.  The  same  year  he  married  Anne 
Boleyn;  who  was  beheaded,  in  1536,  on  a charge  of 
being  faithless  to  him,  leaving  a daughter,  Elizabeth. 
The  next  day  he  married  Jane  Seymour,  who  died,  in 
1537,  after  giving  birth  to  a son,  Edward.  In  1540, 
Cromwell  arranged  a match  with  Anne  of  Cleves,  a 
German  princess.  But  she  was  plain  and  awkward, 
and  in  a little  over  six  months,  Henry  was  divorced 
from  her,  and  married  to  Catherine  Howard.  She,  too, 
was  beheaded,  in  about  a year  and  a half,  on  a charge 
of  unchastity  before  marriage,  and  the  next  year,  1543, 
he  married  Catherine  Parr,  who  survived  him.  Crom- 
well was  brought  to  the  block  when  the  king  discarded 
Anne  of  Cleves. 

Henry’s  Death.  By  an  Act  of  Parliament,  Henry 
was  authorized  to  bestow  the  crown  according  to  his 
own  pleasure.  He  bequeathed  it  to  his  son  Edward. 
The  youth  and  old  age  of  few  persons  present  so  great  a 
contrast  as  those  of  Henry.  A graceful  and  attractive 
youth,  he  became  in  old  age  so  gross  and  offensive  in 
his  person  that  few  could  endure  to  remain  near  him. 
On  account  of  his  excessive  corpulency,  he  was  moved 
from  chamber  to  chamber  by  mechanical  aid.  When 
his  last  sickness  came  upon  him,  and  death  drew  near, 
at  first  no  one  dared  tell  him  the  terrible  truth.  Con- 
scious at  last  of  the  coming  change,  he  sent  for  Cran- 
mer,  who  had  retained  his  favor  to  the  last,  pressed  his 
hand,  and  died. 


146 


EDWARD  VI. 


Edward  VIM  1547  to  1553  — 6 years.  Tudor. 

The  Regency.  The  political  history  of  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI.,  which  lasted  only  six  years,  is  but  an  un 
interesting  record  of  the  schemes  of  ambitious  men, 
aiming  at  wealth  and  power.  Henry  VIII.  had  ap 
pointed  a Council  of  sixteen  members,  at  the  head  of 
which  stood  Cranmer,  to  govern  the  kingdom  until  Ed 
ward,  who  was  now  ten,  reached  the  age  of  eighteen 
years.  This  Council,  disregarding  the  will  of  Henry, 
appointed  the  Earl  of  Hertford,  afterwards  Duke  of 
Somerset,  one  of  its  own  members,  Protector. 

Edward  and  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots.  By  a treaty 
with  Scotland,  made  during  the  lifetime  of  Henry, 
Edward  had  been  betrothed  to  Mary,  the  young  Scot- 
tish queen.  Somerset  urged  upon  the  Scots  the  exe- 
cution of  the  treaty,  but  the  combined  French  and 
Catholic  influence  prevailed  to  defeat  it.  Somerset 
raised  an  army  and  marched  into  Scotland  to  compel 
the  observance  of  the  treaty.  At  the  battle  of  Pinkie, 
the  last  national  contest  between  the  two  countries,  the 
Scots  were  defeated  with  a loss  of  ten  thousand  men, 
but  they  became  more  bitterly  opposed  to  the  execu- 
tion of  the  treaty  than  before.  The  Earl  of  Huntley 
expressed  the  prevailing  sentiment  among  the  Scotch 
nobles  when  he  said,  " He  disliked  not  the  match,  but 
hated  the  manner  of  the  wooing.”  Mary  was  then  sent 
to  France  to  render  the  marriage  impossible.  The  Earl 
of  Warwick,  afterwards  Duke  of  Northumberland, 
also  a member  of  the  Council,  secured  the  overthrow 
of  Somerset  and  his  own  appointment  in  his  stead. 
Northumberland  remained  in  office  to  the  end  of  the 


reign. 


EDWARD  VI. 


147 


Peasant  Revolts.  While  Somerset  was  Protector, 
peasant  revolts*  broke  out  in  different  parts  of  the 
kingdom.  The  most  important  of  these  revolts  oc- 
curred under  one  Robert  Ket,  at  the  head  of  twenty' 
thousand  men.  Ket  established  himself  at  Norwich, 
as  judge  and  law-giver  for  all  the  country  around, 
making  his  headquarters  under  an  oak  tree,  which  he 
called  the  " Tree  of  Reformation.”  The  revolts  were 
quelled  with  the  usual  barbarities,  the  " Tree  of  Reform- 
ation” serving  as  a gallows. 

Progress  of  the  Reformation.  But  that  which  inter 
ests  us  most  in  this  reign  is  the  progress  of  the  Refor 
mation.  Archbishop  Cranmer,  encouraged  by  the  king, 
who  was  a zealous  Protestant,  vigorously  carried  for 
ward  the  work  begun  by  Henry  YIH.  The  old 

♦ It  is  not  clear  as  to  the  exact  causes  in  all  cases.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  after  the  ravages  of  the  Black  Death  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  the 
scarcity  of  laborers  caused  high  wages,  and  both  together  wrought  a gradual 
change  in  the  agricultural  policy  of  the  country.  The  farmers,  abandoning 
crops  that  required  much  manual  labor,  turned  their  arable  land  into 
pastures  for  raising  sheep.  The  suppression  of  the  monasteries  was  followed 
by  a like  disposition  of  the  church  lands,  the  most  of  which  went  to  satisfy 
the  greed  of  favorite  courtiers,  and  to  found  a new  nobility,  and  were,  by  their 
new  owners,  turned  into  “ enclosure3,,  tor  sheep  culture.  The  agricultural 
products  were  thus  largely  reduced  in  quantity,  but  enhanced  in  value.  But 
the  people,  in  the  course  of  time,  recovered  from  the  depletions  of  the  pesti- 
lence, and  labor  became  abundant,  and  consequently  cheap.  Besides  this, 
the  monks  had  been  good  to  the  poor,  and  were  generally  beloved.  There 
was  a feeling  of  heartfelt  sympathy  for  them,  as  homeless  and  penniless  they 
wandered  about  the  country,  begging  food  and  shelter.  The  monasteries 
were  not  all  corrupt,  and  they  had,  in  times  past,  served  a useful  purpose. 
They  had  afforded  the  means  of  education  to  the  young,  given  shelter  to  the 
traveller,  and  been  a refuge  for  the  oppressed,  in  an  age  when  there  were  no 
inns,  few  schools,  and  little  protection  for  the  weak  and  innocent  against  the 
lawless  and  brutal.  The  general  dissatisfaction,  especially  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts, at  their  suppression,  caused  a reaction  against  the  Reformation,  and 
gave  rise  to  plots  for  the  return  of  Catholicism.  All  these  things,  therefore, 

“ enclosures  ” for  sheep  culture,  a surplus  of  labor  and  a falling  scale  of 
wages,  small  crops  and  the  high  price  of  food,  the  dissolution  of  the  religious 
houses,  together  with  a debasement  of  the  coinage  uMer  Henry  VIII.,  com* 
bined  to  produce  idleness,  destitution, and  revolt. 


148 


EDWARD  VI. 


statutes  running  back  to  the  (lays  of  the  Lollards,  and 
those  of  a more  recent  origin  on  the  subject  of  heresy, 
as  well  as  the  "new-fangled  treasons”  of  Henry  VIII., 
were  all  repealed.  The  Catholic  clergy  were  removed 
from  their  livings,  and  their  places  filled  with  Protest- 
ants ; the  Latin  mass  was  abolished  ; the  churches  were 
despoiled  of  their  plate,  the  paintings  on  their  walls, 
and  the  stained  glass  in  the  windows,  were  ruth- 
lessly destroyed.  The  colleges  connected  with  the 
religious  houses  and  the  chantries  (places  where  mass 
was  said  for  the  dead)  were  broken  up,  their  revenues 
being  used,  in  part,  by  Edward,  for  the  endowment  of 
grammar  schools  and  hospitals.  Perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant step  taken  in  promoting  the  Reformation  was 
the  preparation,  chiefly  by  Archbishop  Cranmer,  of  a 
"Rook  of  Common  Prayer.”  Cranmer  took  as  a basis 
lor  his  work  the  services  that  had  been  in  use  in  the 
church  since  the  primitive  ages.  Being  printed  in 
English,  the  people  soon  learned  to  love  a form  of  wor- 
ship which  they  could  understand,  and  in  which  they 
could  so  intelligently  participate.  Its  use  was  made 
obligatory  in  all  the  churches.  Only  two  persons  suf- 
ered  at  the  stake  during  this  reign,  but  many,  who 
refused  to  conform  to  the  Protestant  worship,  went  to 
prison. 

Edward’s  Will.  Lady  Jane  Grey,*  a member  of 
the  youngest  branch  of  the  Tudor  family,  had  married 
Lord  Dudley,  son  of  Northumberland.  As  Edward 
was  in  consumption,  and  it  was  evident  that  he  could 
not  long  survive,  Northumberland  prevailed  upon  him  to 
alter  the  succession,  and  instead  of  leaving  the.  crown 

* See  note  on  page  1:52. 


EDWARD  VI. 


149 


to  Mary,  the  rightful  heir,  to  give  it  to  Lady  Jane 
Grey.  Edward  was  no  doubt  chiefly  concerned  for 
the  safety  of  the  Protestant  religion,  and  his  last 
prayer  is  said  to  have  been  that  England  might  be  pre- 
served from  "Papistry.”  Lady  Jane  was  a Protestant, 
Mary,  a Catholic ; and  so  zealous  was  the  latter,  that 
she  continued  to  hold  Catholic  services  at  her  own 
house  in  defiance  of  all  the  authorities.  North umber- 
land  was  undoubtedly  inspired  by  no  higher  motive 
than  the  aggrandizement  of  his  own  familv.  The  fail- 
ing  king  was  placed  by  him  under  the  care  of  a woman 
of  reputed  skill,  but  he  declined  more  rapidly  than 
before,  and  soon  died,  at  the  age  of  sixteen.  Suspi- 
cions were  not  wanting  that  his  end  had  been  hastened 
to  make  more  sure  and  speedy  the  accomplishment  of 
Northumberland’s  plans.  Edward  was  a youth  of 
great  promise,  and  his  death  was  generally  lamented. 
Northumberland  at  once  hurried  into  the  presence  ot 
Lady  Jane  Grey,  with  the  intelligence  that  she  was  now 
Queen  of  England.  This  is  said  to  have  been  her  first 
knowledge  that  she  was  Edward's  heir,  and  she  as- 
sumed the  crown  only  in  obedience  to  the  commands 
and  entreaties  of  her  husband's  family. 

Mary,  1553  to  155S  — 5 years.  Tudor. 

Lady  Jane  Grey.  It  had  been  the  intention  of  the 
conspirators  to  seize  the  Princesses  Mary  and  Elizabeth 
before  the  death  of  Edward  became  known  ; but  Mary, 
being  notified  of  its  occurrence  in  season,  took  refuge 
in  a castle  on  the  coast,  that  she  might  escape  to  for- 
eign parts,  in  case  the  fortunes  of  war  went  against  her. 
She  then  pi  spared  to  assert  her  rights  by  force  of  arms. 


150 


MARY. 


The  usurpation  of  Northumberland  did  not  meet  the 
approval  of  the  people,  who  gathered  rapidly  to  the 
support  of  Mary  as  their  lawful  sovereign.  Lady 
Jane,  convinced  of  her  mistake,  gladly  laid  aside  the 
crown  which  she  had  so  reluctantly  assumed,  and  which 
she  had  worn  but  ten  days,  and  disappeared  entirely 
from  the  public  sight.  Her  life  had  been  passed  in  the 
delightful  pursuits  of  learning.  Though  but  sixteen 
years  of  age,  she  could  speak  fluently,  Latin,  Greek, 
French,  and  Italian,  and  had  some  acquaintance  with 
Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and  Arabic.  Beautiful  in  person, 
sweet  and  guileless  in  disposition,  and  gifted  in  conver- 
sation, she  was  better  fitted  to  shine  in  domestic  and 
literary  than  in  courtly  circles.  Mary  speedily  as- 
cended the  vacant  throne.  One  of  her  first  acts  was  to 
bring  to  the  block  the  guilty  Northumberland,  and  to 
cast  into  prison  the  innocent  but  unfortunate  Lady 
Jane  and  her  husband,  Lord  Dudley. 

The  next  year  a marriage  was  arranged  between 
Mary  and  Philip  of  Spain,  a bigoted  Catholic.  This 
match  being  odious  to  the  English  people,  several  ris- 
ings occurred,  implicating  some  of  the  friends  of  Lady 
Jane.  The  fate  of  the  latter  was  sealed.  From  her 
window  in  the  Tower,  she  saw  the  headless  body  of  her 
husband  borne  away,  and  in  a few  hours  followed  him 
to  the  scaffold.  John  removed  one  who  might  be  dan- 
gerous to  his  throne,  when  he  put  to  death  the  little 
Arthur;  Eichard  might  have  made  the  same  poor  plea 
when  he  destroyed  the  youthful  princes  in  the  Tower  ; 
but  Mary  had  no  excuse  for  putting  to  death  this  lovely 
girl,  whose  only  crime  was  lending  a too  ready  obedi* 
ence  to  her  husband's  intriguing  father. 


MARY. 


151 


Catholicism  Restored  to  England.  Mary  was  a zeal- 
ous Catholic,  and  determined  to  restore  England  to 
friendly  relations  with  the  Papacy.  Parliament  was 
assembled,  and  proceeded,  by  statute  after  statute,  to 
sweep  away  all  the  legislation  of  the  preceding  reigns 
establishing  the  Protestant  religion.  It  refused,  how- 
ever, to  re-establish  the  religious  houses,  and  restore  to 
them  their  lands  ; but  Mary  conscientiously  yielded  up 
all  church  property  that  remained  in  possession  of  the 
Crown.  The  Catholic  bishops,  who  had  been  incar- 
cerated in  the  Tower  by  Edward,  were  restored  to  their 
sees.  Cardinal  Pole,  the  legate  of  the  pope,  was  re- 
ceived with  great  pomp,  and,  in  presence  of  the  sov- 
ereign and  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  solemnly 
absolved  the  nation  for  its  temporary  departure  from 
the  Catholic  faith.  Under  the  guidance  of  Bishops  Gard- 
iner and  Bonner,  the  queen  inaugurated  a system  of 
the  most  terrible  and  unrelenting  persecution. 

The  Martyrs  at  the  Stake.  During  the  four  years 
of  its  continuance,  multitudes  perished  by  the  axe,  in 
prison,  and  at  the  stake,  while  thousands  fled  to  foreign 
parts.  At  the  stake  alone,  two  hundred  and  eighty- 
eight  suffered  death,  including  fifty-five  women  and  four 
children.  Bishops  Rogers,  Hooper,  Ridley,  and  Lati- 
mer, and  Archbishop  Cranmer,  the  foremost  preachers 
of  the  preceding  reign,  were  successively  committed 
to  the  flames.  Said  the  aged  Latimer  to  his  friend 
Ridley,  as  side  by  side  they  were  chained  to  the  iron 
stake,  "Be  of  good  comfort,  Master  Ridley,  and  play 
the  man  ; we  shall  this  day  light  such  a candle,  by  God’s 
grace,  in  England,  as  I trust  shall  never  be  put  out.” 
Latimers  prophetic  words  found  a speedy  fulfilment. 


152 


MARY. 


The  fires  of  persecution  enkindled  anew  the  zeal  arid 
devotion  of  the  Reformers.  For  every  life  that  went 
out  in  martyrdom  to  the  cause  of  religious  liberty, 
there  were  a hundred  converts  to  the  Protestant  faith. 

Mary’s  Marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain.  Mary’s 
marriage  with  Philip  took  place  in  1554,  but  it  proved 
as  unhappy  for  herself  as  it  was  unpopular  with  her 
subjects.  On  the  part  of  Philip  it  had  been  a matter 
of  mere  State  policy  ; on  the  part  of  Mary  one  of  positive 
infatuation.  Even  before  she  had  seen  Philip,  the  rep- 
resentations which  the  Spanish  Legate  had  made  of  his 
master  inflamed  her  imagination,  and  excited  her  to 
an  almost  insane  desire  for  the  match.  She  was  eleven 
years  older  than  her  husband,  to  whom  she  became 
devotedly  attached,  but  by  whom  she  was  despised  and 
studiously  neglected.  So  unmanly  was  Philip,  he  even 
allowed  her*  name  to  be  made  a subject  of  jest  among 
the  gallants  of  his  court.  Having  received,  by  the 
abdication  of  his  father,  the  sovereignty  of  Spain  and 
the  Netherlands,  he  spent  most  of  his  time  on  the 
continent,  partly  from  his  aversion  to  his  wife,  and 
partly  from  disgust  at  the  insignificant  position  he  oc- 
cupied in  the  government  of  England.  Though  hus- 
band to  the  queen,  and  nominally  king,  he  was  re- 
fused by  Parliament  both  the  act  of  coronation  and  the 
right  of  succession. 

Loss  of  Calais,  A.B.  1558.  Spain  had  engaged  in 
a war  with  France.  Philip  came  to  England  to  secure 
the  aid  of  Mary.  A sudden  descent  of  the  French 
upon  the  English  coast,  and  the  desire  of  Mary  to 
please  her  husband,  led  to  a treaty  with  Spain  and  a 
declaration  of  war  with  France.  Mary’s  cup  of  misery 


MART. 


153 


was  filled  to  the  brim  when  the  news  reached  her  that 
Calais,  the  boast  and  pride  of  England  for  two  cen- 
turies, and  its  last  possession  on  the  continent,  was 
wrested  forever  from  English  rule.  Situated  in  the 
midst  of  marshes,  it  had  been  the  practice  to  withdraw 
a portion  of  the  garrison  during  the  winter,  and  the 
defenses  had  been  of  late  much  neglected.  Suddenly 
attacked  by  sea  and  land  by  the  Duke  of  Guise,  it  was 
forced  to  surrender,  after  holding  out  eight  days  in  the 
vain  hope  of  relief.  Said  the  wretched  queen,  " When 
I die  Calais  will  be  found  written  on  my  heart ; ” and 
she  died,  in  less  than  a year,  of  a broken  heart. 

Extenuation  of  Mary’s  Cruelty.  While  the  perse- 
cutions to  wThich  Mary  was  constantly  spurring  her 
lagging  bishops,  were  atrocious,  we  can,  at  least,  credit 
her  with  fidelity  to  her  convictions.  Brought  up  in  a 
court  as  absolute  as  that  of  an  eastern  despot,  and 
where  a human  life  weighed  little  against  a whim  of  the 
king,  and  reigning  in  an  age  not  yet  risen  to  even  a faint 
conception  of  the  perfect  freedom  of  opinion,  which  is  the 
crowning  glory  of  that  in  which  we  live,  there  is  some 
palliation  for  her  bigotry  and  her  cruelty.  Mary  consci- 
entiously, and,  in  the  only  way  she  knew,  by  force, 
undertook  to  extirpate  what  she  thought  was  heresy, 
and  re-establish  what  she  believed  was  truth.  Nor 
should  the  facts  of  her  personal  history  be  forgotten. 
Disowned  by  her  father  just  as  she  was  entering 
womanhood,  and  branded  as  illegitimate  by  statute, 
and  so  cherishing  for  many  years  a bitter  sense  of 
wrong ; despised  and  forsaken  by  a husband  she 
adored ; hated  by  a people  whose  welfare  she  sought 
to  promote  ; crushed  with  a sense  of  shame  at  the  loss 


MARY. 


'V)  4 

of  Calais,  and  worn  and  wasted  with  disease,  it  is  no 
wonder  she  sank  under  an  overwhelming  load  of  woe. 
The  title  " Bloody,”  however  justly  prefixed  to  the  name 
of  Mary,  could  have  been  more  appropriately  given  to 
her  father,  for  much  of  whose  cruelty  there  is  no  ex- 
tenuation. 

Elizabeth,  1558  to  1G03  — 44  years.  Tudor. 

Protestantism  Restored  to  England.  The  universal 
gloom  that  had  settled  over  England  during  the  last 
years  of  Mary’s  cruel  reign,  full  of  indications  of  a 
coming  storm,  passed  quickly  away  amidst  the  pealing 
bells  and  blazing  boil-fires  that  everywhere  greeted 
Elizabeth’s  accession  to  power.  The  very  day  she 
entered  London, the  prison  doors  were  opened  wide  to 
all  confined  for  conscience’  sake,  still  further  heighten- 
ing the  universal  joy.  The  first  official  act  of  the  new 
queen  was  to  restore  the  Protestant  religion.  The 
"Oath  of  Supremacy”  required  all  bishops,  priests, 
and  civil  officers  to  acknowledge  Elizabeth  as  the  Su- 
preme  Head  of  the  Church,  and  to  deny  allegiance  to 
all  foreign  authority.  By  foreign  authority  was  meant, 
the  pope.  All  the  bishops  but  one  or  two,  refusing  to 
take  this  oath,  were  removed  from  their  sees,  and  Pro- 
testants put  in  their  places.  But  the  priests  in  the 
country  parishes,  almost  without  exception,  took  the 
required  oath,  and  were  not  disturbed.  . As  fast  as 
their  places,  from  any  cause,  became  vacant,  they  were 
filled  by  Protestant  clergymen,  so  that,  in  process  of 
time,  all  the  pulpits  in  the  kingdom  came  to  be  in 
sympathy  with  the  new  religion.  The  "Act  of  Uni- 
formity” required  all  the  people  to  conform  to  the 


ELIZABETH. 


155 


usages  of  the  established  Church.  Even  the  neglect  of 
public  worship  was  punished  with  fine  and  imprison- 
ment. The  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  somewhat  im- 
proved, returned  to  its  old  place  in  the  religious  ser- 
vice. Thirty-nine  "Articles  of  Faith  ” became  the 
standard  of  religious  belief. 

The  Puritans.  There  appeared  during  this  reign 
a new  sect  of  Protestants  called  Puritans.  The  perse- 
cutions of  Mary  had  driven  into  exile  thousands  of 
English  Protestants.  Many  of  them  took  refuge  in 
Geneva,  where,  under  Zwingle  and  Calvin,  the  Refor- 
mation had  taken  a more  radical  type  than  in  Eng- 
land. By  the  Calvinists,  as  the  Swiss  Reformers 
were  called,  the  surplice,  liturgy,  and  bishops  of  Episco- 
pacy, and  every  form  and  ceremony  peculiar  to  Rome, 
were  utterly  discarded.  Even  that  beautiful  symbol, 
the  Cross,  was  banished  as  an  abomination,  not  only 
from  religious  worship,  but  from  the  church  edifice  it- 
self; and  " Merry  Christmas,”  the  joyful  anniversary  of 
the  birth  of  our  Lord,  was  metamorphosed  into  a solemn 
Fast,  because  both  Cross  and  Christmas  were  so  inti- 
mately associated  with  the  Papacy.  When  Mary  died, 
the  English  exiles  returned  to  their  homes,  but  brought 
with  them  the  plainer  worship  and  stricter  mode  of  life 
they  had  learned  to  love  abroad.  The  severe  simplicity 
and  purity  of  their  religious  faith,  made  the  rule  and 
compass  of  their  daily  life,  produced  character  of  the 
type  of  Sparta,  of  the  mould  of  early  Rome.  Puritan- 
ism was  a reform  of  Episcopacy,  as  the  latter  had 
been  of  Catholicism ; so  that  Episcopacy  occupied  a 
middle  ground  between  the  two  extremes.  It  retained 
many  of  the  forms  and  ceremonies  of  the  Papacy,  while 


15G 


ELIZABETH. 


its  system  of  faith  was  identical  with  that  of  the 
Puritans. 

Despite  its  narrowness  and  bigotry — for  its  disciples 
did  not  rise  entirely  above  the  age  in  which  they 
lived— there  is  nothing  grander  in  all  history  than 
the  developments  of  Puritanism  during  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries.  How  it  stirs  the  soul,  how 
it  ennobles  our  conceptions  of  humanity,  deepens  our 
faith  in  virtue  and  our  trust  in  truth,  to  read  the  pain- 
ful yet  inspiring  story  of  the  Huguenots  of  France,  the 
Covenanters  of  Scotland,  and  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  — the 
story  of  their  sublime  fortitude,  patience,  suffering,  as 
with  unquestioning  faith  they  obeyed  the  simple  voice 
of  conscience.  Though  shrinking  from  no  sacrifice, 
their  devotion  to  their  religion  was  that  of  rational 
beings,  and  not  blind  devotees.  Religion  was  to  them 
an  intensely  personal  matter.  As  nothing  stood  be- 
tween their  souls  and  their  God,  a consciousness  of 
the  Divine  Presence  was  the  one  great  fact  of  the  Puri- 
tan life.  Questions  of  individual  responsibility  and 
individual  duty  constantly  occupied  their  thoughts. 
Life  became  to  them  an  unceasing  struggle.  Inspired 
by  constant  meditation  on  the  sublime  realities  with 
which  they  had  to  deal,  but  sobered  in  spirit  by  a 
sense  of  personal  unworthiness,  they  exhibited  uncon- 
scious heroism  combined  with  the  deepest  humility, 
and  achieved  the  grandest  results  without  a thought 
of  worldly  fame. 

C The  Bangers  that  Environed  Elizabeth.  Though 
the  Puritans  were  a source  of  increasing  embarrass- 
ment to  Elizabeth,  on  account  of  the  rapid  increase  in 
their  numbers  and  their  sturdy  adherence  to  their  prim 


ELIZABETH. 


157 


ciples,  her  chief  danger  lay  in  the  hostility  of  the 
Catholics,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  Philip  of  Spain 
was  the  most  bigoted  as  well  as  the  most  powerful 
sovereign  in  Europe,  and  the  acknowledged  champion 
of  Pome.  His  empire  embraced  Spain,  Portugal,  the 
Netherlands,  Italy,  and  the  Indies,  East  and  West.  His 
armies  had  marched  more  than  once  to  the  gates  of 
Paris,  and  his  fleets  commanded  every  sea.  Philip, 
offended  at  Elizabeth’s  refusal  of  his  hand,  which  he 
had  offered  her  in  a month  after  Mary’s  death,  became 
her  personal  enemy. 

France  was  as  hostile  as  Spain  to  England,  though  not 
so  dangerous,  for  her  own  soil  was  already  the  scene  of  a 
fearful  religious  struggle.  Finally,  the  pope  had  early 
declared  against  Elizabeth,  and  had  sought  to  unite  the 
Catholic  powers  of  Europe  in  behalf  of  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  her  next  of  kin,  and  heir  to  the  English  throne. 
Pope  Clement  VII.  had  never  recognized  Anne  Boleyn 
as  the  lawful  wife  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  Pius  V. 
now  refused  to  recognize  Elizabeth  as  their  lawful  issue. 
It  will  be  remembered,  too,  that  a statute  of  Parlia- 
ment had  also  pronounced  her  illegitimate.  Thus  was 
Elizabeth  environed  by  danger. 

Elizabeth’s  Policy.  With  a title  somewhat  preca- 
rious, the  ruler  of  a part  of  one  small  island  whose 
population  did  not  exceed  six  millions,  without  soldiers, 
ships,  or  allies,  it  would  have  been  madness  in  Eliza- 
beth, in  the  early  part  of  her  reign,  to  have  courted 
conflict  with  any  one  of  the  hostile  nations  around  her, 
especially  with  Spain.  Her  great  want  was  time  and 
peace,  to  enable  her  to  establish  her  personal  authority, 
to  plant  the  Church  of  England  on  a solid  basis,  to 


158 


ELIZABETH. 


develop  the  resources  of  the  kingdom,  and  to  build  up  a 
navy.  To  preserve  peace  and  gain  time  taxed,  con- 
stantly and  to  the  utmost,  the  resources  of  Elizabeth 
and  her  ablest  ministers.  It  was  for  this  that  she  alter- 
nately raised  and  dashed  the  hopes  of  half  a dozen 
roj'al  suitors  for  her  hand.  It  was  for  this  that  she  en- 
gaged in  endless  negotiations  and  perpetual  intrigues 
with  foreign  powers,  holding  Spain  at  bay  by  threaten- 
ing alliance  with  France,  and  keeping  France  in  check 
through  fear  of  a treaty  with  Spain,  deceiving  neither, 
in  fact,  but  outwitting  and  perplexing  both.  While 
accomplishing  her  object,  the  preservation  of  peace, 
she  won  for  herself  that  reputation  for  duplicity  and 
mendacity,  in  her  public  as  well  as  her  private  rela- 
tions, that  has  left  so  indelible  a stain  on  her  memory. 

Whether  deliberately  planned  or  not,  the  moderate 
ground  Elizabeth  had  taken  in  religion  contributed  to 
her  personal  power,  and  to  the  peace  of  her  kingdom. 
While  she  required  conformity  to  the  usages  of  the  es- 
tablished church,  she  punished  no  man  for  his  opinions; 
and  this  was  a step  far  in  advance  of  her  predecessors, 
as  well  as  of  the  age  in  which  she  lived.  Had  she 
taken  decided  ground  with  either  Catholic  or  Puritan 
extreme,  she  must,  sooner  or  later,  have  faced  a Puritan 
ora  Catholic  revolt.  As  it  was,  the  great  body  of  both 
religious  sects  • remained  staunch  in  their  lojralty  ; and 
when  at  length  the  long-deferred  crisis  came,  and 
Philip,  towards  the  end  of  her  reign,  undertook  the 
conquest  of  England,  they  rallied  with  fervent  devo- 
tion around  the  royal  standard.  Side  by  side  in  the 
muster  at  Tilbury  stood  Catholic,  Puritan,  and  Epis- 
copalian, alike  ready  to  die  for  their  country  and 


ELIZABETH. 


159 


queen.  Catholic  gentry  and  Puritan  traders  alike 
offered  their  ships,  all  manned  and  equipped,  for  the 
stru£<rle  with  the  " Great  Armada.”  When  the  threat- 

uu 

ened  invasion  had  ended  in  disaster,  and  the  galleons 
of  Philip,  beaten  and  broken,  had  straggled  up  the 
Tagus,  a mere  remnant  of  the  mighty  armament  that 
had  sailed  out  so  proudly  a few  months  before,  and 
when  England  at  once  came  to  the  front,  undisputed 
mistress  of  the  seas,  the  early  peaceful  policy  of  the 
great  queen  was  amply  vindicated.  She  might  then 
have  appropriated  the  proud  boast  of  the  great  but 
patient  Mazarin  : "Time  and  I against  any  two.” 

This  is  a general  view  of  the  policy  pursued  by 
Elizabeth  during  the  greater  part  of  her  reign,  under 
the  guidance  of  her  able  ministers,  Burleigh  and 
Walsingham.  There  remain  to  be  noticed,  briefly 
and  connectedly,  the  relation  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots 
to  English  history,  and  the  well-matured  but  ill-starred 
expedition  of  Philip,  just  alluded  to. 

Mary,  Queen  of  Scots.  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,* 
though  passed  over  in  the  will  of  Henry  VIII.,  was 
the  next  heir  to  the  throne  after  Elizabeth.  She  had 
been  betrothed,  when  an  infant,  to  Prince  Edward, 
Henry’s  son  and  successor ; but  French  and  Catholic 
influence  availed  not  only  to  break  up  the  match  with 
Edward,  btit  to  effect  her  marriage  with  the  Dauphin, 
who,  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  assumed  the  French 
Crown,  under  the  title  of  Francis  II.  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scotland  by  inheritance,  Queen  of  France  by  mar- 


* Margaret,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Henry  VII.,  married  James  IV.  of  Scot* 
land.  Their  son,  James  V.,  was  the  father  of  Mary,  who  Inherited  the  king* 
dom  under  the  title  of  Mary, Queen  of  Scots. 


160 


ELIZABETH. 


riagc,  now  assumed  the  title  of  Queen  of  England, 
claiming,  as  did  the  Catholic  world  in  general,  that 
Elizabeth  was  not  the  rightful  sovereign. 

The  Reformation, under  the  preaching  of  John  Knox, 
had  made  great  progress  in  Scotland.  A French  force 
had  been  sent  to  that  country,  for  the  double  purpose 
of  crushing  out  the  Reformation  and  strengthening 
French  interests.  Elizabeth,  conscious  that  her  own 
throne,  as  well  as  the  Protestant  religion,  was  menaced 
by  the  action  of  France,  hurried  an  army  across  the 
border  to  the  help  of  the  Scots.  The  French  army 
was  besieged  in  Leith  and  forced  to  sue  for  peace.  By 
the  treaty  of  Edinburgh,  the  French  engaged  to  leave 
the  country,  and  Mary  to  renounce  her  claims  to  the 
English  throne  during  the  life-time  of  Elizabeth. 
Mary  refused  to  ratify  her  part  of  the  treaty,  and  per- 
sisted in  her  refusal  till  near  the  end  of  her  life.  At 
the  death  of  her  husband,  Francis  II.,  she  returned  to 
her  kingdom  of  Scotland  and  soon  married  Lord  Darn- 
ley,  the  next  heir  to  the  Scottish  throne. 

Mary  and  Darnley  were  ardent  Catholics,  but  their 
subjects  were  largely  Protestant ; and  there  naturally 
arose  on  the  part  of  the  latter  great  apprehension  as  to 
the  future  policy  of  the  government  in  matters  of  relig- 
ion. They  sought  to  obtain  from  the  queen  a formal 
recognition  of  Potestantism  as  the  national  religion. 
This  Mary  would  not  give,  but  she  expressed  her  readi- 
ness to  assent  to  perfect  religious  toleration.  The  Prot- 
estants, believing  that  she  designed  the  restoration  of 
Catholicism,  rose  in  arms.  Putting  herself  at  the  head 
of  her  troops,  with  6 6 pistols  at  her  saddle-bow,”  the 


ELIZABETH. 


161 


resolute  queen  soon  quelled  tlie  revolt,  and  the  banished 
lords  took  refuge  in  England. 

Though  Mary  was  but  little  over  twenty-three  years 
of  age,  she  had  reached  the  crisis  period  in  her  career. 
We  are  soon  to  see  her  fall,  either  innocent  of  serious 
offence,  but  hopelessly  entangled  in  a net-work  of  mis- 
fortunes, or  guilty  of  heinous  crime  and  richly  meriting 
the  doom  she  speedily  met.  Since  history  has  failed  to 
furnish  conclusive  evidence  of  her  guilt,  let  us  remember 
her  as  the  unfortunate  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 

Mary’s  love  and  respect  were  changed  to  dislike  and 
contempt, for  a husband  who  treated  her  unkindly,  and 
was  addicted  to  many  vices.  Darnley,  attributing  the 
change  in  her  feelings  to  the  influence  of  her  private 
secretary,  Eizzio,  of  whom  he  was  also  jealous,  en- 
tered the  queen’s  apartments,  at  the  head  of  a band  of 
disaffected  nobles,  and  slew  Eizzio,  almost  in  her  very 
presence.  The  enraged  queen  vowed  to  have  her  re- 
venge. Though  apparently  reconciled  to  her  husband, 
the  Earl  of  Bothwell  became  her  confidential  adviser, 
and,  at  last,  the  object  of  her  affections.  In  less  than 
a year  after  the  murder  of  Eizzio,  a house  in  Edin- 
burgh, called  the  Kirk  of  Field,  in  which  Darnley  was 
lying  sick,  was,  one  night,  blown  up  with  gunpowder, 
and  its  unhappy  inmate  killed.  That  Bothwell  was 
guilty  of  the  crime  is  morally  certain  ; but  that  Mary  was 
accessory  to  it,  there  is  no  conclusive  proof.  Her  speedy 
marriage  with  Bothwell,  under  circumstances,  peculiarly 
suspicious,  created  the  most  intense  excitement.  The 
Scotch  lords  flew  to  arms,  and  made  the  queen  their 
prisoner.  She  ^ as  required  to  choose  between  war 


162 


ELIZABETH. 


unci  the  banishment  of  Both  well.  She  chose  the  latter,* 
and  was  then  hurried  to  Castle  Lochlcvcn,  and  forced 
to  resign  her  crown  in  favor  of  her  infant  son. 

Escaping  in  1568,  after  nine  months  of  captivity  in 
the  lonely  island  castle,  she  rallied  her  adherents,  lost 
the  battle  of  Langside,  and  was  chased  to  the 
Solway,  which  she  crossed  in  a boat,  and  took  refuge 
in  England.  She  demanded  of  Elizabeth  a passage  to 
France,  or  an  army  to  recover  her  kingdom.  Her 
demands  were  met  by  a royal  order  for  her  detention, 
and  then  her  imprisonment.  If  she  had  been  a cause 
of  alarm  to  Elizabeth  before,  she  became  doubly  so 
now.  Her  release  and  elevation  to  the  English  throne 

o 

itself  became  the  object  of  plot  after  plot  among  Bo- 
manists,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  Pope  Pius  V. 
issued  a decree  of  deposition  against  Elizabeth.  Jes- 
uits poured  into  the  kingdom  in  large  numbers,  to 
awaken  discontent  amonaf  the  English  Catholics. 

The  great  Catholic  houses  of  Neville  and  Percy  rose 
in  arms;  but  the  Catholic  masses,  turning  a deaf  ear 
to  pope,  Jesuit,  and  noble,  remained  loyal  to  their 
queen,  and  the  rising  was  easily  quelled  and  its  authors 
brought  to  the  block.  Finally  a Catholic  plot,  under  the 
leadership  of  one  Babington,  to  assassinate  Elizabeth 
and  proclaim  Mary,  was  brought  to  light,  implicating 
Mary  herself.  Elizabeth  was  now  compelled  to  act  in 
defence  of  her  life  and  throne.  Mary,  tried  by  a com- 
mission of  Peers,  in  1587,  was  found  guilty  and  con- 
demned to  death,  and  the  queen  reluctantly  signed  the 

* The  banished  Bothwell  made  his  home  among  the  Orkneys,  and  became 
the  leader  of  a band  of  pirates.  Being  pursued,  he  found  shelter,  for  awhile, 
among  the  Shetland  Isles,  whence  he  escaped  to  Denmark,  where  he  died  in  a 
dungeon. 


ELIZABETH. 


163 


warrant  for  her  execution.  In  the  hall  of  Fotheringay 
Castle,  her  last  prison  house,  this  weary  captive  of 
nineteen  long  and  dreary  years,  saddened  by  sorrow, 
but  heroic  still,  calmly  laid  her  head  upon  the  block. 

Her  brilliant  qualities  of  mind  and  person,  the  calm 
dignity  with  which  she  bore  misfortune,  and  her  affect- 
ing death-scene,  have  touched  the  cord  of  universal 
sympathy,  and  thrown  a veil  of  charity  over  the  frail- 
ties of  her  life  and  character.  Both  Council  and  Parlia- 
ment considered  Mary’s  death  a State  necessity.  What 
would  have  been  the  result  of  her  liberation  we  can 
only  conjecture;  but  her  execution  was  closely  followed 
by  the  most  imminent  peril  that  ever  menaced  the 
throne  of  Elizabeth,  if  not  the  liberties  of  England. 
Of  the  disposition  of  Mary  herself,  we  have  the  clearest 
expression  in  a letter  to  Elizabeth,  written  during  the 
last  of  her  captivity,  when  longings  for  liberty  had 
overcome  all  worldly  ambitions.  "Let  me  go,”  she 
wrote,  "let me  retire  from  this  island  to  some  solitude, 
where  I may  prepare  my  soul  to  die.  Grant  this,  and 
I will  sign  away  every  right  which  either  I or  mine 
can  claim.”  Elizabeth  turned  a deaf  ear  to  this  touch- 
ing appeal,  and  Mary  then  bequeathed  all  her  rights  to 
the  English  throne  to  Philip  of  Spain,  — rights  which 
Philip  promptly  claimed  and  began  the  most  gigantic 
preparations  to  enforce. 

The  Maritime  Growth  of  England.  It  seems  neces- 
sary at  this  point  to  notice  briefly  the  maritime  growth 
of  England.  Elizabeth’s  moderate  and  pacific  policy, 
persistently  followed  for  thirty  years,  had  produced  the 
happiest  results.  The  nation’s  advance  in  wealth  and 
power  had  been  rapid  and  healthful.  Unexampled 


164 


ELIZABETH. 


thrift  characterized  all  its  industries,  while  its  com- 
merce whitened  every  sea,  pouring  into  London,  then 
just  becoming  the  great  trade-mart  of  the  civilized 
world,  the  wealth  of  every  land  and  clime. 

The  thirst  for  adventure  and  discovery  had  sent 
daring  spirits  into  every  nook  and  corner  of  the  earth, 
whose  glowing  reports  of  the  wonders  they  had  seen 
stimulated  fresh  expeditions,  and  opened  to  English 
enterprise  new  avenues  of  trade.  It  had  led  Chan- 
cellor to  penetrate  the  Arctic  ocean  towards  the  east, 
and  open  a lucrative  trade  with  Archangel.  It  had 
lured  Davis  and  Frobisher  into  the  same  ocean  towards 
the  west,  in  search  of  a shorter  passage  to  India.  It 
had  sent  the  famous  Hawkins  to  the  tropics,  and  opened 
an  inexhaustible  source  of  wealth  in  the  ivory,  gold- 
dust  and  slaves  of  Guinea.  There  was  an  extensive 
and  growing  trade  with  the  ports  of  the  North,  Baltic, 
and  Mediterranean  seas.  Every  harbor  on  the  coast 
had  long  sent  out  its  fishing  boats  into  the  waters 
around,  but  now  England  began  to  rival  France  in  the 
number  of  vessels  sent  to  the  cod-fisheries  of  New- 
foundland and  the  whale-fisheries  of  the  Polar  seas. 

There  was  another  cause  for  the  maritime  develop- 
ment of  England.  The  merciless  slaughter  of  the 
Huguenots  of  France  and  the  patriot  Reformers  of  the 
Netherlands,  had  fired  Protestant  England  wuth  fierce 
resentment.  But  its  politic  queen  coolly  continued 
negotiations  for  marriage  with  a Catholic  prince  of 
France,  even  after  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew; 
and  she  long  looked  with  apparent  indifference  at  the 
butcheries  of  Alva  in  the  Netherlands.  The  English 
people  finally  took  the  matter  into  their  own  hands, 


ELIZABETH. 


165 


and  made  war  on  tlieir  own  account.  They  flocked  to 
the  Netherlands  by  thousands  and  joined  the  Protestant 
army.  English  "sea-dogs,”  as  they  were  called,  com- 
missioned as  privateers  by  Conde  of  France  and  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  or  flying  the  French  and  Dutch  flags 
without  commissions,  simply  pirates,  swarmed  in  all 
the  waters  frequented  by  French  or  Spanish  traders. 
Aided  by  the  English  people  all  along  the  coast,  and 
often  by  the  royal  officers  themselves,  prizes  were  con- 
stantly run  into  secret  inlets  and  their  cargoes  dis- 
charged. Drake,  the  boldest  spirit  of  them  all,  haunted 
the  unguarded  coasts  of  Spanish  America,  burning 
towns  and  intercepting  Spanish  galleons  bound  to  Ca- 
diz, laden  with  gold,  silver,  and  diamonds  for  the 
Spanish  king.  In  such  schools  were  the  brave  and 
hardy  mariners  of  England  trained  for  the  hot  work 
which  Philip  was  soon  to  furnish  them. 

Elizabeth’s  Defiance  of  Philip.  Affairs  were  fast 
coming  to  an  issue  between  Elizabeth  and  Philip.  The 
former  had  long  been  embittered  by  Philip’s  secret 
efforts  to  awaken  discontent  among  her  Catholic  sub- 
jects ; the  latter  as  long  enraged  at  Elizabeth’s 
duplicity  in  secretly  aiding  the  Netherlander,  and 
shielding  English  pirates  on  Spanish  commerce,  while 
professing  peace  with  Spain.  Towards  the  last,  Eliza- 
beth threw  off  the  mask.  Under  the  pressure  of  public 
sentiment  after  the  assassination  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  and  conscious  that  the  Reformation  in  the 
Netherlands,  unaided,  must  soon  expire,  she  sent  an 
army  of  eight  thousand  men  to  their  assistance.  It 
was  under  the  command  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester, 
one  of  Elizabeth’s  favorites,  and  accomplished  little. 


1 06 


ELIZABETH. 


The  campaign  is  chiefly  memorable  for  the  death  of  one 
of  its  most  accomplished  officers,  Sir  Philip  Sidney. 
He  received  .,a  mortal  wound  at  the  siege  of  Zutphen. 
When  about  to  partake  of  a little  water  that  had  been 
procured  with  great  difficulty,  lie  saw  a wounded  sol- 
dier looking  wistfully  at  it.  " Take  it,”  said  the  chiv- 
alric  Sidney,  who  was  himself  burning  with  thirst, 
"thy  necessities  are  greater  than  mine.” 

When  Drake  returned  from  one  of  his  expedi- 
tions, enriched  with  the  gold  and  jewels  taken  from 
Spanish  galleons,  and  Philip  demanded  the  surrender 
of  the  "pirate,”  Elizabeth  publicly  conferred  on  the 
latter  the  honor  of  knighthood,  and  wore  the  captured 
jewels  in  her  hair.  The  death  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots 
put  an  end  to  Philip’s  irresolution. 

The  Invincible  Armada.  Besides  dethroning  Eliza- 
beth, it  was  Philip’s  aim  to  restore  Romanism  to  Eng- 
land. To  this  double  purpose,  he  now  bent  all  his 
energies,  and  turned  the  vast  resources  of  the  whole 
Spanish  empire.  For  three  years,  ships  and  stores 
w^erc  slowly  coming  into  the  Tagus,  and  forming  what 
Philip  boastfully  called  the  " Invincible  Armada.” 
The  English  rovers  were  all  called  home.  Drake, 
with  a fleet  of  thirty  sail,  hovered  about  the  Spanish 
coast,  picking  up  Spanish  traders  and  attacking  un- 
guarded points.  Boldly  entering  the  harbor  of  Cadiz, 
he  destroyed  the  ships  and  stores  collected  there,  de- 
laying the  sailing  of  the  Armada  for  many  months. 

The  great  fleet  left  the  Tagus  the  last  of  Majr, 
1588.  Overtaken  by  a storm,  it  put  into  Corunna  to 
refit.  The  last  of  July,  its  approach  to  the  English 
coast,  under  the  command  of  the  Duke  of  Medina 


ELIZABETH. 


167 


Sidonia,  was  signaled  by  blazing  beacons  on  every 
hill-top.  It  swept  slowly  up  the  English  channel,  in 
the  form  of  an  extended  crescent,  seven  miles  from 
wing  to  wing.  It  was  composed  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  ships,  many  of  them  of  immense  burthen.  On 
its  rear  closely  hung  the  English  fleet  of  eighty 
sail,  under  the  command  of  Lord  Howard.  Drake 
had  command  of  the  " sea-dogs,”  among  whom  were 
Hawkins  and  Frobisher.  The  huge  and  unwieldy 
galleons  of  Spain  were  captured  or  sunk,  one  by  one, 
by  the  lighter  and  more  active  craft  of  the  English. 
Still  the  mighty  fleet  held  steadily  on  its  way  and 
dropped  anchor  in  the  roads  of  Calais.  The  Duke  of 
Parma  had  been  in  camp  at  Dunkirk  with  thirty  thou- 
sand men,  ready  to  land  on  the  English  coast  as  soon 
as  the  Armada  should  arrive  to  protect  their  passage 
across  the  channel.  Howard  saw  the  necessity  of  de- 
cisive action  to  prevent  the  crossing  of  Parma’s  troops. 
The  next  night  eight  English  ships,  filled  with  combus- 
tibles and  set  on  tire,  were  towed  towards  the  Spanish 
vessels,  and  sent,  with  tide  and  wind,  into  their  veiy 
midst,  as  they  lay  crowded  together  at  anchor.  The 
affrighted  Spaniards  cut  their  cables  and  fled  to  the 
open  sea,  stretching  away  in  a broken  line  along  the 
coast.  At  break  of  day,  the  fearless  "sea-dogs,”  under 
the  lead  of  Drake,  fell  upon  the  disordered  line,  and 
sunk,  captured,  or  forced  on  shore,  Spaniard  after 
Spaniard,  driving  the  still  numerous  but  panic-stricken 
fleet  northward.  Medina  no  longer  thought  of  the  con- 
quest,  of  Englaud,  but  of  safety  for  his  broken  and 
scattered  fleet.  Not  daring  to  return  through  theEng- 
lish  Channel  in  the  face  of  Drake,  he  sought  to  make 


168 


ELIZABETH. 


the  circuit  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  reach  Spain  by 
way  of  the  Atlantic.  Drake,  having  exhausted  his 
ammunition,  gave  up  the  pursuit,  and  the  Hying  Span- 
iards disappeared  in  the  waters  of  the  North  Sea. 
Overtaken  by  fierce  storms,  and  unacquainted  with  the 
navigation  of  those  dangerous  seas,  their  unwieldy 
and  disabled  galleons  were  dashed  upon  the  wild  and 
rocky  shores.  The  hapless  crews  escaped  a watery 
grave,  only  to  die  at  the  hands  of  the  savage  natives. 
Eight  thousand  of  the  very  chivalry  of  Spain  are  said 
to  have  perished  on  the  western  coast  of  Ireland. 
Nearly  a hundred  ships  and  fourteen  thousand  men 
were  missing,  when  the  shattered  remains  of  the  " In- 
vincible Armada  ” once  more  dropped  anchor  in  Span- 
ish waters. 

The  Spanish  king  received  the  news  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Armada  f'  with  his  usual  constancy,”  saying, 
with  unchanged  countenance,  "I  sent  it  against  man 
and  not  against  the  billows.”  The  English,  too,  recog- 
nized the  fact  that  the  elements,  perhaps  more  than 
English  valor,  had  won  for  them  the  victory.  On  an 
old  English  medal,  commemorating  the  event,  this  in- 
scription was  written : — 

" Flcivit  Jehovah  et  dissijpati  sunt .” 

" Jehovah  blew  and  they  were  scattered.” 

England’s  supremacy  on  the  high  seas  was  now 
achieved.  ' Philip,  indeed,  with  the  energy  of  despair, 
gathered  another  Armada,  but  this  only  brought  Drake 
and  the  English  " sea-dogs  ” once  more  to  the  Spanish 
coast.  Cadiz  was  taken  and  burned  to  the  ground,  and 
its  ships  and  stores  again  destroyed.  He  once  more 
became  the  scourge  of  Spanish  America,  taking  treas- 


ELIZABETH. 


169 


urc-laden  galleons  and  destroying  settlements  ; but  all 
sense  of  danger  from  Spain  passed  away  from  Elizabeth 
and  her  people. 

Great  Names.  The  impulse  given  to  learning  in  the 
preceding  reigns,  favored  by  the  long  peace  of  the 
present,  began  to  bear  fruit.  Men  of  genius  appeared 
in  every  department  of  intellectual  labor.  Ealeigh, 
Spencer,  Hooker,  Bacon,  Sidney,  and  Shakspearc  are 
among  the  most  illustrious  names.  There  was  a host  of 
lesser  lights.  Though  Elizabeth  had  the  wisdom  to  be 
guided  by  statesmen  in  public  affair^,  in  private  life 
she  admitted  to  favor  men  of  little  ability  and  still  less 
virtue. 

Death  of  Elizabeth.  The  closing  years  of  her  life 
were  made  sad  and  gloomy  by  the  execution  for  trea- 
son of  the  last  of  her  favorites,  the  Earl  of  Essex. 
In  a moment  of  tenderness,  years  before,  Elizabeth 
had  given  him  a ring,  requesting  him  to  send  it  to 
her  if  he  ever  needed  her  help.  Now  that  the  earl 
lay  under  sentence  of  death,  she  looked,  confidently, 
day  after  day,  for  the  ring.  But  it  never  came;  and 
the  disappointed  but  resentful  queen  gave  her  signature 
to  the  fatal  sentence  ; and  the  unfortunate  earl  was  soon 
beyond  the  reach  of  mortal  aid.  Not  long  after  this, 
the  Countess  of  Nottingham,  when  on  her  death-bed, 
called  the  queen  to  her  side,  and  confessed  to  her  that 
Essex  had  sent  the  ring,  and  that  she,  out  of  enmity 
to  him,  had  withheld  it.  Elizabeth’s  resentment  at 
what  she  had  believed  to  be  the  earl’s  contempt  for  her 
favor,  changed  to  a paroxysm  of  rage  and  grief. 
Shaking  the  dying  countess,  who  was  praying  for  her 
pardon.  Elizabeth  cried,  " God  may  forgive  you  but  I 


170 


ELIZABETH. 


never  can.”  She  became  a prey  to  melancholy  that 
deepened  with  her  failing  strength,  until  she  died,  like 
her  sister,  broken-hearted.  On  the  night  of  her  death 
she  was  asked  to  name  her  successor.  At  the  mention 
of  Lord  Beauchamp,  a member  of  the  royal  family, 
she  said,  with  a touch  of  the  old  Tudor  spirit,  "I  will 
have  no  rogue’s  son  in  my  seat.”  James  VI.,  king  of 
Scotland  was  named,  but  she  was  speechless  and  could 
only  signify  her  assent.  The  next  morning,  March 
24th,  1603,  she  died,  and  James  became  king  of  Eng- 
land, with  the  title  of  James  I. 

Character  of  Elizabeth.  In  character,  Elizabeth 
was  a mass  of  contradictions.  She  had,  in  a marked 
degree,  the  iron  will,  imperious  temper,  and  sound 
judgment  of  her  father,  the  insincerity,  vacillation 
and  vanity  of  her  mother.  She  was  often  coarse  in 
her  manners,  and  sometimes  profane  in  her  speech. 
Though  arbitrary  in  her  rule,  like  her  father,  she  was 
never  a tyrant  like  him,  and  she  knew  how  to  yield 
when  the  occasion  required  concession.  Two  years 
before  her  death  she  granted  a large  number  of  monop- 
olies to  favored  persons.  Seeing  the  dissatisfaction 
they  had  created,  she  sent  a message  to  the  House 
of  Commons,  announcing  the  reversal  of  all  the  grants. 
To  a committee  sent  to  express  the  gratitude  of  the 
House  for  the  gracious  act,  she  returned  her  thanks 
for  reminding  her  of  a mistake  into  which  she  had  fall- 
en  through  an  error  of  judgment.  From  her  supreme 
desire  to  win  the  love  and  promote  the  welfare  of  her 
subjects,  despite  her  faults,  she  was  known  in  her  day, 
among  the  great  mass  of  the  English  people,  and  is 
esteemed  in  ours,  as  " Good  Queen  Bess.” 


CHAPTER  IX. 


House  of  Stuart,  1603  to  1714  — 111  years. 

JAMES  I.  JAMES  II. 

CHARLES  I.  WILLIAM  and  MARY. 

COMMONWEALTH.  ANNE. 

CHARLES  II. 

James  I.,  1603  to  1625  — 22  years.  Stuart. 

Union  of  Scotch  and  English  Crowns.  James  I. 
was  the  representative  of  the  royal  families  of  both 
England  and  Scotland,  and  so  united  both  their  crowns. 
Although  these  countries  now  came  under  one  king, 
their  constitutional  union,  or  union  of  Parliaments,  did 
not  take  place  till  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne. 

Persecution  of  Non-Conformists.  The  increasing 
severities  towards  non-conformists  in  the  latter  part  of 
Elizabeth’s  reign,  excited  an  intense  anxiety  in  the  pub- 
lic mind,  to  know  what  would  be  the  policy  of  her  suc- 
cessor. Before  James  reached  London,  he  had  been 
approached  by  both  Catholics  and  Puritans ; the  former 
basing  their  hopes  on  his  promise  of  toleration  of 
Catholic  worship,  given  to  secure  Catholic  support, 
and  the  latter  expecting  much  from  his  Puritan  edu- 
cation. Both  were  doomed  to  disappointment.  He 
avowed  himself  an  Episcopalian ; and  although  at  first 
tolerant,  he  began  ere  long  to  execute  the  laws  against 
non-conformists  with  more  risror  than  Elizabeth  had 

O 

done. 


(171) 


172 


JAMES  I. 


King  James’s  Version  of  tlie  Bible.  In  January, 
1604,  the  king  had  called  a convention  of  Episcopal 
and  Puritan  divines,  to  discuss  the  religious  question. 
It  accomplished  but  one  thing  of  importance,  the  issue, 
in  1611,  of  a new  translation  of  the  Bible,  called 
" King  James’s  Version,”  the  one  still  used  by  most 
Protestants.  Fifty-four  learned  divines  were  occupied 
three  years  in  its  preparation.  The  hope  that  this  con- 
vention would  bring  harmony  among  the  clashing  sects 
was  not  realized.  King  James,  who  had  been  the 
principal  speaker  in  behalf  of  the  Established  Church, 
angry  at  the  obstinacy  of  the  Puritans,  who  failed  to 
be  convinced  by  his  arguments,  sought  to  convert  them 
by  a threat.  "I  will  make  them  conform,”  said  he, 
as  the  convention  closed,  " or  I will  harry  them  out  of 
the  land.”  The  persecutions  that  followed  forced  mul- 
titudes to  seek  in  foreign  lands  the  safety  and  protection 
they  could  not  have  in  their  own. 

The  Gunpowder  Plot.  The  discontent  of  some  of 
the  Catholics  at  the  persecutions  to  which  they  were 
subjected,  found  expression  in  the  " Gunpowder  Plot,” 
a scheme  to  blow  up  Parliament  House,  when  king, 
lords,  and  commons  were  assembled.  The  conspirators 
hired  the  basement  of  the  building,  ostensibly  for 
business  purposes,  and  concealed  therein  thirty-six 
barrels  of  gunpowder.  A warning  sent  to  a Catholic 
lord,  November  4th,  1605,  the  day  before  the  meeting 
of  Parliament,  led  to  an  investigation.  The  powder 
was  found  under  a pile  of  wood  and  fagots,  and  Guy 
Faw~kes,  the  keeper  of  the  cellar,  preparing  slow 
matches  for  the  explosion  on  the  morrow.  The  con- 
spirators dispersed  in  every  direction,  and  sought 


JAMES  I. 


173 


places  of  concealment,  but  most  of  them  were  ferreted 
out  and  put  to  death.  The  abhorrence  of  Catholicism, 
excited  among  the  English  people  by  this  diabolical 
plot,  gave  a death-blow  to  Catholic  hopes  of  toleration. 
The  laws  against  " Popish  recusants  ” were  made  more 
severe  and  executed  more  rigorously  than  ever.  They 
were  required  to  take  a new  oath,  renouncing  the  right 
of  the  pope  to  excommunicate  princes,  or  absolve  sub- 
jects from  their  allegiance. 

The  Pilgrim  Fathers.  One  little  Puritan  band, 
after  a brief  stay  in  Holland,  took  passage  in  the  May- 
llower  and  sought,  across  the  broad  Atlantic,  a refuge 
in  the  wilderness  of  the  New  World,  content  to  sever 
the  tender  ties  that  bound  them  to  home  and  country, 
and  endure  all  possible  hardships,  that  they  might  wor- 
ship God  as  conscience  directed  them.  The  " Pilgrim 
Fathers,”  as  we  delight  to  call  these  first  settlers  in 
New  England,  landed  at  Plymouth,  in  the  depth  of 
winter,  December  21st,  1620. 

This  was  not  the  first  permanent  settlement  made  by 
the  English  on  the  continent.  In  1606,  three  years 
after  James’s  accession  to  power,  two  companies  were 
chartered  for  the  settlement  of  America.  The  terri- 
tory of  the  London  Company  extended  from  the  34th 
to  the  38th  parallels  of  latitude,  corresponding  roughly 
with  the  mouths  of  the  Cape  Fear  and  Potomac  rivers  ; 
that  of  the  Plymouth  Company  from  the  41st  to  the 
45th  parallels,  corresponding  with  the  mouths  of  the 
Hudson  and  St.  Croix.  The  country  between  was 
open  to  settlement  by  either  company.  In  1607,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  London  Company,  an  expedition 
entered  Chesapeake  bay,  and  made  a settlement  at 


174 


JAMES  I. 


Jamestown,  on  the  James  river,  about  fifty  miles  from 
its  mouth.  An  attempt  made  by  the  Plymouth  Com- 
pany, the  same  year,  to  plant  a colony  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Kennebec,  was  not  successful. 

James’s  Assumption  in  Matters  of  Religion.  James 
Was  a man  of  one  idea,  and  that  the  inherited  and  abso- 
lute rights  of  kings.  But  this  doctrine  of  the  " divine 
right  of  kings  ” was  not  only  a favorite  theory,  ever 
on  the  royal  lips,  but  also  the  key-note  to  the  royal 
policy,  both  in  church  and  state.  Parliament  assem- 
bled in  1604.  The  House  of  Commons  was  largely 
Puritan,  and  its  temper,  in  view  of  the  absolutism  set 
up  by  James,  is  clearly  seen  in  its  action.  It  petitioned 
for  a redress  of  grievances  in  matters  of  religion  The 
king’s  decided  rejection  of  this  petition  was  met  by 
the  equally  decided  protest  on  the  part  of  the  House  : 
"Let  your  majesty  be  pleased  to  receive  public  infor- 
mation from  your  Commons  in  Parliament,  as  well  of 
the  abuses  in  the  Church  as  in  the  civil  State.  Your 
majesty  would  be  misinformed  if  any  man  should  de- 
liver that  the  kings  of  England  have  any  absolute  power 
in  themselves,  either  to  alter  religion  or  to  make  any 
laws  concerning  the  same,  otherwise  than  as  in  tem- 
poral causes,  by  consent  of  Parliament.” 

James’s  Assumption  in  Matters  of  Government. 
James  levied  a tax  on  all  exports  and  imports,  and 
obtained  a decision  from  the  judges  in  favor  of  its 
legality.  The  House  of  Commons  then  petitioned  for 
a redress  of  grievances  in  matters  of  state.  His  re- 
fusal to  grant  this  petition  brought  another  protest  and 
prayer  that  a law  be  made  to  declare  " that  all  imposi- 


JAMES  I. 


175 


tions  set  upon  your  people,  then  goods,  or  merchandize, 
save  only  by  common  consent  in  Parliament,  are  and 
shall  be  void.”  Parliament  was  promptly  dissolved, 
but  the  necessities  of  the  king  compelled  its  speedy  re- 
assembling. The  questions  dividing  king  and  Parlia- 
ment went  to  the  people,  and  became  the  issue  in  the 
election  of  new  members.  The  new  House  of  Com- 
mons was  more  decidedly  opposed  to  the  policy  of  the 
king  than  the  old  one.  It  made  a redress  of  griev- 
ances, especially  that  of  illegal  imposts,  the  condition 
of  a grant  of  supplies.  Its  angry  dissolution  displayed 
the  folly  as  well  as  obstinacy  of  the  king. 

Seven  years  of  absolute  rule,,  seven  years  of  relent- 
less extortion,  only  served  to  widen  the  breach  between 
king  and  people.  Illegal  imposts  continued;  the 
odious  " benevolences  ” were  revived ; the  equally 
odious  system  of  "purveyance  ”*  was  practiced  without 
regard  to  the  law ; the  sale  of  monopolies  and  the  obso- 
lete system  of  royal  wardship,  by  which  the  incomes 
of  the  estates  held  under  military  tenure  went  to 
the  king  during  the  minority  of  the  heir,  were  re- 
newed ; patents  of  nobility  were  so  freely  sold  that,  at 
the  death  of  James,  one-half  the  peers  of  England 
were  those  created  by  him.  The  shameless  waste  of 
the  money  thus  obtained,  on  a corrupt  court,  excited 
the  disgust  as  well  as  the  indignation  of  the  people. 

* Purveyance  was  an  ancient  prerogative  of  the  Crown,  by  which  the  king 
had  the  preference  over  all  others  in  the  purchase  of  supplies.  He  could 
take  them  at  an  appraised  value,  even  without  the  owner’s  consent.  The 
royal  officers  often  practiced  great  injustice,  purveyance  becoming  under 
some  of  the  kings  a system  of  royal  robbery.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
regulate  it  in  Magna  Charta,  and  by  repeated  enactments  in  succeeding  reigns. 
]t  was  finally  surrendered  by  Charles  II.  for  a compensation. 


176 


JAMES  I. 


Personal  favorites  took  the  place  of  English  states- 
men, not  only  in  the  friendship  of  the  king,  but  in 
stations  of  highest  responsibility  in  the  government. 
A mere  adventurer,  one  George  Villiers,  became  Duke 
of  Buckingham  and  Minister  of  State.  lie  was  the 
Piers  Gaveston  of  the  infatuated  kim*.  Promotion  to 
office,  retention  in  office,  and  even  access  to  the  person 
of  the  king,  on  the  part  of  men  of  the  highest  rank, 
depended  on  the  pleasure  or  the  bribery  of  this  hand- 
some but  corrupt  official. 

Foreign  Affairs.  The  foreign  policy  of  James  was 
almost  as  displeasing  to  the  English  people  as  his  man- 
agement of  domestic  affairs.  Just  as  the  life  and  death 
struggle  between  Catholics  and  Protestants  was  break- 
ing out  in  Germany,  warmly  enlisting  the  sympathies 
of  Protestant  England  in  behalf  of  the  latter,  James 
was  obsequiously  courting  the  favor  of  Spain,  and 
seeking  to  bring  about  a marriage  between  Prince 
Charles  and  the  Spanish  Infanta.  The  cry  for  another 
Parliament,  coming  from  every  quarter  of  the  kingdom, 
forced  the  king  to  issue  writs  for  an  election. 

The  Parliament  of  1621.  The  Parliament  of  1621 
is  almost  as  famous  as  that  of  1640,  for  the  boldness 
with  which  it  opposed  the  assumptions  of  the  king.  It 
demanded  a war  with  Spain  instead  of  a treaty  of  al- 
liance, and  a Protestant  instead  of  a Catholic  marriage 
for  the  Prince  of  Wales.  " Bring  stools  for  the  ambas- 
sadors,was  the  ironical  command  of  the  king,  as  the 
committee,  sent  by  the  House  of  Commons  to  com- 
municate their  demands,  was  announced.  He  forbade 
further  discussion  by  the  Commons  on  affairs  of  State, 
asserting  that  all  their  rights  weve  derived  from  him- 


JAMES  I. 


177 


6elf  and  his  ancestors.  "Let  us  pray,  and  then  con- 
sider of  this  great  business,”  said  a member  of  the 
Commons,  as  the  king’s  commands  were  repeated  by 
the  committee.  The  resolution  that  followed,  affirm- 
ing freedom  of  speech  as  their  ancient  right,  has  the 
ring  of  the  times  of  Henry  in.,  when  an  armed  baron- 
age boldly  confronted  the  tyrant  at  Westminster.  The 
clanking  of  swords  was  then  hardly  more  startling  to 
the  ears  of  Henry  than  the  utterances  of  the  Commons 
to  James.  With  a purpose  as  aimless  as  it  was  impo- 
tent, he  sent  for  the  journals  of  the  House,  and  with 
his  own  hand  tore  out  the  leaves  containing  the  ob- 
noxious  resolution.  James  might  indeed  destroy  the 
Parliament  records  ; but  the  spirit  of  liberty,  enkindled 
anew  in  the  hearts  of  the  patriot  Commons,  he  could 
not  extinguish.  The  sudden  dissolution  of  Parliament 
ended  the  conflict,  for  the  time  being. 

— Prince  Charles.  Prince  Charles,  accompanied  by 
Buckingham,  visited  Spain  to  complete  the  marriage 
contract  with  the  Spanish  Infanta.  Mutual  disgust 
broke  off  all  negotiations,  and  Charles  returned  to 
England,  and  took  sides  with  the  people  in  demanding 
war.  James,  disappointed  in  his  hopes  of  a Spanish 
alliance,  was  borne  along  by  the  popular  current  into 
another  war  with  Spain.  A new  marriage  was  ar- 
ranged for  Charles  with  Henrietta,  a princess  of  France. 
James  died  before  its  consummation. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  The  name  of  Sir  Walter  Ra- 
leigh had  long  been  known  in  connection  with  public 
affairs.  He  began  his  public  career  in  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth, and  was  prominent  as  a courtier,  statesman  and 
commander.  Under  the  patronage  of  Elizabeth,  he  sent 


178 


JAMES  I. 


several  expeditions  to  make  settlements  in  the  New 
World.  His  first  colonists,  at  Roanoke  Island,  were 
ill-fitted  for  the  hardships  and  privations  of  a new 
country,  and  took  advantage  of  a chance  visit  of 
Drake,  who  was  returning  from  one  of  his  raids  on 
Spanish  America,  to  abandon  their  settlement.  His 
second  colony,  when  revisited  after  the  expiration  of 
three  years,  was  found  to  have  disappeared,  leaving  no 
trace  behind.  Early  in  the  reign  of  James,  Raleigh, 
being  implicated  (though  on  very  slight  testimony)  in 
a conspiracy  to  overthrow  the  government  and  place 
Arabella  Stuart,  the  king’s  cousin,  on  the  throne,  was 
sent  to  the  Tower,  under  sentence  of  death.  After 
twelve  years  of  confinement,  during  which  he  occupied 
the  dreary  hours  of  prison  life  in  writing  a " History 
of  the  World,”  he  was  released  on  a promise  to  guide 
an  expedition  to  a gold  mine  in  Guiana.  But  the 
Spaniards,  notified  (some  say  by  James  himself)  of 
the  purpose  of  the  expedition,  made  every  prepara- 
tion to  defeat  it.  Raleigh,  broken  in  spirit  and 
fortune,  returned  to  England,  only  to  re-enter  the 
Tower,  and  perish  on  the  scaffold. 

Character  of  James  I.  James  was  plain  in  person, 
awkward  in  manners,  and  intemperate  even  to  drunk- 
’enness  in  his  habits;  but  he  had  good  natural  ability 
and  considerable  learning,  of  which  he  was  exces- 
sively vain.  His  pedantic  display  of  his  learning  led 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  to  characterize  him  as  the 
" wisest  fool  in  Christendom.”  The  public  contempt 
for  his  meanness  was  only  surpassed  by  the  public  re- 
sentment at  his  usurpations.  He  was  at  once  the  most 
puerile  and  the  most  presumptuous  of  English  kings. 


JAMES  I. 


179 


As  an  index  of  the  prevalent  feeling  towards  this  king, 
it  is  said  that  his  peculiarities,  both  of  person  and 
character,  were  publicly  caricatured  in  the  theatres  of 
London,  to  the  infinite  enjoyment  of  the  people. 

Charles  I.,  1625  to  1649—24  years.  Stuart. 

Constitutional  Liberty  at  the  Accession  of  Charles  I. 
From  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  to  the  reign  of  James  I., 
we  hear  little  of  constitutional  liberty  in  England. 
Standing,  as  we  now  do,  at  the  very  threshold  of  a re- 
newal of  the  constitutional  struggle,  a brief  retrospect 
will  make  more  intelligible  the  course  of  events  upon 
which  we  are  about  to  enter. 

Mediaeval  civilization  rested  on  the  Feudal  System, 
and  fell  with  it,  and  both  went  down  with  the  nobility 
in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  These  wars  reduced  Eng- 
land to  a state  bordering  on  anarchy,  and  the  only 
power  that  did  save  it,  or  that  could  save  it,  from  utter 
anarchy,  was  a stable  throne.  To  this  all  parties  turn- 
ed with  the  instinct  of  self-preservation. 

The  nobility,  land  owners,  and  moneyed  classes,  re- 
membering the  leveling  doctrines  of  the  socialists, 
looked  to  the  throne  to  protect  them  from  another  peas- 
ant revolt. 

The  Catholic  Church,  conscious  of  the  silent  but  vig- 
orous growth  of  the  % ideas  implanted  by  Wickliffe, 
turned  to  the  throne  to  save  it  from  another  reforma- 
tion. 

The  people,  having  suffered  under  the  evils  of  a dis- 
puted succession,  were  ready  to  welcome  any  line  of 
kings  strong  enough  to  shield  them  from  the  horrors  of 
another  civil  war. 


180 


CHARLES  I. 


The  House  of  Commons,  that  ancient  hope  of  the 
nation,  by  a sweeping  restriction  of  the  elective  fran- 
chise, and  by  wholesale  corruption  in  the  election  of 
members,  had  sunk  into  a mere  appendage  of  the  crown, 
and,  under  some  of  the  kings,  into  the  great  instrument 
of  its  oppressions. 

Without  marked  violence  or  special  opposition,  the 
king  deliberately  gathered  into  his  single  hand  all  the 
powers  of  Church  and  State.  That  ho  should  become 
arbitrary  was  natural ; that  he  should  grow  despotic 
was  not  strange.  Between  the  reigns  of  Edward 
IY.  and  Charles  I.,  the  government  of  England  ranged 
through  all  shades  and  degrees  of  absolutism. 

But  even  in  the  midst  of  absolute  rule,  silent  forces 
were  at  work  weakening  its  foundations,  and  destin- 
ed, in  the  fulness  of  time,  to  accomplish  its  complete 
overthroAV.  The  diffusion  of  knowledge  and  the  cleAra- 
tion  of  the  masses,  had  been  rapid  and  general,  espec- 
ially after  the  invention  of  the  printing  press.  There 
Avas  noiselessly  growing  up  an  enlightened  public  senti- 
ment on  the  relation  of  sovereign  to  subject  that  Avas 
far  in  advance  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  the  goAr- 
ernment.  Faith  in  the  doctrine  of  the  " divine  right 
of  kings  ” became  A\Teak,  as  con\rictions  of  the  sacred- 
ness of  human  rights  grew  strong. 

During  the  reign  of  James  I.  -it  was  evident  that  a 
collision  betA\reen  king  and  people  Avas  at  hand.  At 
the  death  of  James,  there  Avas  a lull  in  the  gathering 
storm  that  was  soon  to  break  over  the  head  of  his  sou 
and  successor.  It  Avill  eArer  be  a matter  of  Avonder 
that  Charles  I.  could  so  completely  shut  his  eyes  to  the 
signs  of  the  times,  that  he  should  take  no  AAUirning 


CHARLES  I. 


181 


from  his  father’s  mistakes,  but  should  blindly  and 
obstinately  pursue  his  father’s  insane  policy. 

Renewal  of  the  Constitutional  Struggle.  The  strug- 
gle was  clearly  defined.  It  was  constitutional  liberty 
against  the  royal  prerogative,  an  oppressed  people 
against  a tyrannical  king.  The  English  people,  whom 
the  crown  alone  could  rescue  from  the  robber  barons 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  whom  the  patriot  barons 
alone  could  shield  from  the  tyranny  of  the  crown 
in  Henry  III.,  this  great  English  people  had  at  last 
outgrown  dependence  on  king  and  baron,  and  proved 
in  the  end  more  than  a match  for  them  both. 

Public  feeling  in  England  ran  high  against  Romanism 
at  the  time  of  James’s  death.  The  Thirty  Years’  War” 
in  Germanv,  beginning  in  a contest  between  the  Elector 
Palatine  of  the  Rhine  and  Ferdinand,  Emperor  of  Aus- 
tria, for  the  Bohemian  crown,  had  widened  into  a life 
and  death  struggle  between  Romanists  and  Protest- 
ants.  Besides  the  sympathy  English  Protestants  felt 
for  their  brethren  in  Germany,  they  were  naturally  in- 
terested in  behalf  of  the  Elector,  who  was  son-in-law  to 
King  James.  Spain  had  openly  taken  sides  with  the 
Emperor,  and  Eugland  had  entered  the  lists  against 
Spain,  besides  sending  a small  army  to  the  help  of  the 
Elector.  But  the  war  with  Spain  lagged  through  the 
indifference  of  the  government  led  by  Buckingham,  the 
chief  minister  of  State.  King  Charles  demanded  a sub- 
sidy ; but  Parliament,  suspicious  of  his  intentions,  and 
watchful  of  the  liberties  of  Eugland,  limited  the 
usual  grant  of  certain  life  customs  to  a year.  Resent- 
ing the  limitation, Charles  refused  to  accept  the  vote,  and 
levied  the  customs  on  his  own  authority.  Parliament 


182 


CHARLES  I. 


then  proceeded  to  discuss  the  public  grievances,  and 
was  dissolved.  A fruitless  expedition  against  Cadiz, 
under  Buckingham,  leaving  the  king  deeply  in  debt, 
compelled  its  re-assembling  in  1G26.  Instead  of  reliev- 
ing the  king’s  necessities,  the  House  of  Commons, 
guided  by  that  dauntless  patriot,  Sir  John  Eliot,  pro- 
ceeded to  impeach  the  officers  of  the  crown.  Charges 
of  corruption  against  Buckingham  were  carried  in  the 
House.  Eliot,  in  a speech  full  of  scathing  invective, 
then  arraigned  the  royal  favorite  before  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  was  sent  by  the  angry  king  to  the  Tower. 
The  refusal  of  the  Commons  to  act  on  public  affairs 
caused  Eliot’s  release,  but  their  request  for  the  dismis- 
sion of  Buckingham  brought  another  dissolution.  Then 
followed  more  illegal  taxation  in  the  form  of  "benev- 
olences” and  "forced  loans.”  Although  many  of  the 
clergy  preached  the  doctrine  of  passive  obedience, 
men  everywhere  refused  to  give  or  lend  to  the  king. 
Poor  and  friendless  offenders  were  pressed  into  the 
army  or  navy ; the  rich  and  noble  were  thrown  into 
prison  or  summoned  before  the  Council. 

Buckingham  now  had  an  opportunity  to  retrieve  his 
falling  fortunes.  During  the  first  year  of  his  reign, 
Charles  had  married  Henrietta  Maria,  a French  princess. 
The  marriage  stipulation  with  reference  to  the  toleration 
of  Catholics  having  been  broken  by  the  king,  Richelieu 
and  Olivarez,  the  able  ministers  of  France  and  Spain, 
planned  a joint  invasion  of  England.  Buckingham 
sought  to  checkmate  this  scheme  of  invasion  by  an 
attack  on  France.  He  sailed  with  a large  fleet  to  the 
relief  of  Rochelle,  the  stronghold  of  the  Huguenots, 
which  was  besieged  by  French  Catholics.  Another 


CHARLES  I. 


183 


disaster,  more  shameful  than  that  at  Cadiz,  left  the  king 
still  deeper  in  debt,  and  compelled  the  issue  of  writs 
for  another  Parliament. 

Petition  of  Right,  A. I).  1628.  The  people,  now 
thoroughly  aroused,  returned  a House  more  hostile  to 
the  king  than  the  former  one.  Like  that,  it  demanded 
redress  before  a grant  of  money.  It  proceeded  to  array 
its  grievances  and  frame  its  demands  into  that  second 
great  charter  of  liberties,  the  "Petition  of  Right.” 
This  Petition  forbade  forced  loans,  benevolences,  and 
every  species  of  illegal  taxation,  imprisonment,  and 
punishment ; forbade  martial  law  and  the  billeting  of 
soldiers  upon  the  people  in  time  of  peace,  and  im- 
posed obedience  to  the  laws  on  the  ministers  of  the 
crown.  The  refusal  of  the  king  to  sign  this  Petition 
was  followed  by  a " Remonstrance  on  the  State  of  the 
Kingdom.”  At  the  mention  of  Buckingham’s  name, 
against  whom  the  Remonstrance  was  aimed,  the 
speaker  forbade  further  discussion,  saying  that  he  held 
a royal  order  to  allow  no  member  to  speak  against  the 
ministers  of  the  crown.  The  effect  of  this  direct 
interference  with  free  speech,  one  of  the  most  unques- 
tioned privileges  of  Parliament,  beggars  description. 
Eliot,  who  was  addressing  the  House,  sank  stunned 
into  his  seat.  There  were  a few  moments  of  death- 
like silence,  followed  by  sounds  of  suppressed  excite- 
ment, and  then  exclamations  of  amazement,  grief, 
anger,  broke  here  and  there  from  the  seething  assem- 
bly. Some  wept  and  some  prayed.  Members  rose  to 
speak,  but  sat  down  overpowered  with  emotion.  The 
venerable  Sir  Edward  Coke  at  last  took  the  floor,  and 
in  scathing  language  denounced  Buckingham  as  the 

o o o o 


184 


CHARLES  I. 


.author  of  all  the  perils  that  menaced  the  liberties  of 
England.  Charles,  alarmed  at  the  dangers  that  threat- 
ened his  favorite,  sought  to  quell  the  storm  by  giving 
his  signature  to  the  Petition  of  Right.  But  it  was  too 
late.  The  House,  bent  on  the  destruction  of  Bucking- 
ham, pressed  its  Remonstrance,  and  was  hastily  pro- 
rogued. 

But  Buckingham  soon  ceased  to  be  an  object  of 
anxiety  to  either  the  King  or  his  Commons.  While 
preparing  to  take  charge  of  another  expedition  against 
France,  he  was  killed  at  Portsmouth  by  one  Felton, 
but  whether  for  public  or  private  ends  is  not  clear. 
Felton  had  been  discharged  from  the  public  service. 

The  King  Can  Bo  No  Wrong.  An  explanation 
ought  to  be  made  of  the  persistency  with  which  the 
House  of  Commons  pursued  Buckingham  even  after 
the  king  had  assumed  the  responsibility  of  all  the 
offences  charged  against  him.  It  was  then,  as  it  is 
now,  a settled  principle  of  the  English  monarchy  that 
" the  king  can  do  no  wrong.”  In  case  of  wrong  doing 
by  the  government,  the  king’s  ministers  are  held  re- 
sponsible, and,  aside  from  the  removal  or  punishment 
of  these,  there  is  no  way  to  coerce  or  punish  the  king 
himself  except  by  revolution. 

The  Purpose  of  Charles  to  Rule  Alone.  At  its 
next  session,  in  16^9,  the  House  summoned  the  collect- 
ors of  the  illegal  taxes  to  its  bar.  They  appeared  but 
refused  to  answer,  pleading  the  commands  of  the  king. 
The  speaker,  being  about  to  adjourn  the  House,  in  obe- 
dience to  a royal  order,  was  held  down  in  his  chair  and 
the  doors  kept  locked  against  the  messenger  of  the  king, 
until  the  resolutions  offered  by  Eliot  wTere  passed. 


CHARLES  I. 


185 


These  resolutions  denounced  " as  a capital  enemy  of 
the  kingdom  any  minister  who  should  seek  to  change 
the  established  religion  or  advise  the  levying  of  taxes 
without  consent  of  Parliament.”  The  House  then  un- 
locked its  doors  and  suffered  the  dissolution  awaiting  it. 

Ringing  bells  and  blazing  bonfires  had  signified  the 
public  joy  when  the  king  signed  the  Petition  of  Right, 
for  it  was  then  thought  there  would  be  an  end  of  royal 
oppression;  but  joy  was  changed  to  sorrow  when  the 
king,  on  the  occasion  of  the  last  dissolution,  announced 
that  there  would  be  no  more  Parliaments,  that  hence- 
forth lie  should  rule  alone.  Eleven  years  of  personal 
government,  during  which  Parliament  was  not  once  as- 
sembled, prove  the  earnestness  of  the  royal  threat,  and 
form  one  of  the  gloomiest  periods  in  the  history  of  Eng- 
land. Nine  of  the  more  prominent  opponents  of  the 
king  were  thrown  into  the  Tower,  one  of  them,  the 
heroic  Eliot,  to  die  within  its  Avails. 

Laud,  Strafford,  and  the  Two  Courts.  There 
were  two  ministers  upon  whom  Charles  chiefly  relied 
to  carry  out  his  policy  of  absolute  rule,  William  Laud, 
who  had  been  placed  at  the  head  of  the  church,  and 
Thomas  Wentworth,  made  Lord  Strafford,  once  a bit- 
ter opponent,  but  now  a devoted  supporter  of  the  king. 
There  were  two  courts  that  were  the  chief  instruments 
of  the  royal  tyranny,  the  High  Commission  and  Star 
Chamber,  the  former  having  jurisdiction  over  offences 
against  the  church,  and  the  latter,  those  against  the  king. 
Besides  these  there  was  the  "Council  of  the  North,” 
having  almost  absolute  authority  in  the  northern  coun- 
tics. 


186 


CHARLES  I. 


The  High  Commission  and  Puritan  Emigration. 

Though  not  himself  ail  avowed  Catholic,  Laud  sought 
to  make  the  Church  of  England  Catholic  in  its  spirit 
and  practice.  Through  the  court  of  High  Commission 
he  waged  a pitiless  warfare  against  Puritanism.  Its 
ministers  were  everywhere  driven  from  their  livings, 
and  its  laymen  subjected  to  tortures  that  rivalled  those 
of  the  Spanish  Inquisition.  Patents  were  secured  and 
companies  organized  for  the  settlement  of  New  Eng- 
land. Eyes  that  looked  longingly  towards  the  distant 
refuge  of  the  Pilgrims  yet  filled  with  tears,  as,  turning 
their  backs  upon  scenes  that  were  dear  to  them,  the 
Puritans  Wended  their  way  with  unwilling  feet  to  the 
place  of  embarkation.  Hearts  that  swelled  with  grief 
as  the  shores  of  " dear  old  England  ” faded  away  from 
their  sight,  yet  rose  to  a lofty  purpose  and  a sublime 
resignation,  as  they  laid  home  and  country  on  the  altar 
of  their  religious  faith.  They  counted  the  peril,  pov- 
erty, and  hardship  of  their  New  England  homes  as 
naught  beside  the  boon  they  sought  and  found,  — r'  Free- 
dom to  worship  God.” 

The  Puritan  exodus,  once  begun,  continued  until  the 
New  England  coast  was  dotted  with  settlements.  Lord 
Say-and-Seal  and  Lord  Brooke  obtained  a charter  for 
the  settlement  of  the  territory  now  embraced  in  the  Slate 
of  Connecticut.  Several  colonies  were  established 
under  this  charter  within  a few  years.  To  furnish  an 
asylum  for  persecuted  Catholics,  Lord  Baltimore  ob- 
tained a patent  of  the  territory  now  known  as  Mary- 
land. The  first  settlement  wms  made  in  1634.  But 
the  most  interesting  and  important  of  these  colonies, 
numbering  eight  hundred  souls  under  John  Winthrop, 


CHARLES  I. 


187 


entered  Massachusetts  Bay,  in  1G30,  and  founded  Boston. 
During  the  interval  between  the  dissolution  of  the  Par- 
liament of  1G29  and  the  assembling  of  that  of  1G40, 
twenty  thousand  Puritans  had  found  homes  in  the  New 
World.  It  is  said  that  even  Ilampden  and  Cromwell 
once  embarked  for  America,  but  were  stopped  by  a 
royal  order.  The  former  had  purchased  a tract  of  land 
on  Narraganset  Bay. 

The  Star  Chamber  and  Illegal  Taxation.  But 
while  the  High  Commission  was  doing  its  wicked  work 
in  the  name  of  religion,  the  Star  Chamber  was  crushing 
out  every  vestige  of  civil  liberty.  Its  officers  sur- 
passed even  the  lawyers  of  Henry  VII.  in  the  ingenuity 
with  which  they  entrapped  and  mulcted  the  people. 
Laws  and  customs  which  had  passed  away  with  the  feu- 
dal times  in  which  they  originated,  but  which  had  never 
been  formally  repealed,  were  brought  to  light  and  all 
offenders  fined.  Knighthood  was  forced  on  the  gentry 
unless  commuted  with  money.  The  forest  laws  were 
rigidly  executed  and  poachers  heavily  fined. 

James  had  attempted  to  check  the  growth  of  London 
by  a royal  order  defining  its  corporate  limits.  Every 
house  since  erected  beyond  the  specified  line  was  or- 
dered by  Charles  to  be  torn  down  unless  its  owner  paid 
into  the  royal  treasury  a sum  equal  to  three  years’  rent. 
Hundreds  of  the  poor  were  made  houseless  by  the  exe- 
cution of  this  relentless  order.  Monopolies  prevailed 
more  extensively  than  under  Elizabeth  or  James,  rais- 
ing the  necessaries  of  life  to  an  exorbitant  price. 

Ship  Money  and  John  Hampden.  But  the  climax 
to  the  national  endurance  was  reached  when  the  king 
ordered  the  levy  of  a tax  called  ship  money.  From 


188 


CHARLES  T. 


the  earliest  times  this  had  been  a war  tax  levied  on  the 
maritime  counties  for  the  protection  of  the  coast. 
Charles  ordered  the  levy  of  ship  money  on  all  the  peo- 
ple, inland  as  well  as  maritime,  for  general  purposes, 
and  in  a time  of  peace.  Eliot,  the  early  champion  of 
English  liberty,  was  dead,  but  a worthy  successor  ap- 
peared in  the  person  of  John  Hampden,  a farmer  of 
moderate  means  in  the  shire  of  Buckingham.  Refus- 
ing to  pay  the  tax  assessed  against  him,  he  carried  his 
case  to  the  courts.  Though  defeated  through  royal  in- 
iluence,  Hampden  gained  a great  moral  victory,  for  the 
injustice  of  the  king  was  made  apparent  to  all  the 
nation,  and  the  public  mind  was  educated  to  resistance. 

The  Attempt  to  Force  Episcopacy  upon  the  Scots. 
The  king  had  attempted  to  force  Episcopacy  upon  the 
people  of  Scotland.  A royal  order  enjoined  the  use 
of  the  Liturgy  in  all  the  Scotch  churches.  But  those 
sturdy  Presbyterians  had  imbibed  the  spirit  as  well  as 
the  faith  of  John  Knox.  A National  Covenant,  in- 
dustriously circulated,  received  the  signatures  of  nine- 
tenths  of  the  Scotch  people.  The  closing  paragraph 
shows  both  the  tenor  of  the  Covenant,  and  the  temper 
of  the  people. 

"We  promise  and  swear,  by  the  name  of  the  Lord 
our  God,  to  continue  in  the  profession  and  obedience 
of  the  said  religion,  and  that  we  shall  defend  the  same, 
and  resist  all  the  contrary  errors  and  corruptions,  ac- 
cording to  our  vocation  and  the  utmost  of  that  power 
which  God  has  put  into  our  hands,  all  the  days  of  our 
life.” 

Charles  at  once  hurried  northward  with  all  the 
troops  at  his  command,  to  enforce  obedience.  But  the 


CHARLES  I. 


18(J 


Scots  quickly  marshalled  their  clans  under  Leslie,  a 
pupil  of  the  great  Gustavus,  and,  without  waiting  for 
the  attack  of  the  English  king,  pushed  boldly  across  ‘the 
border  and  offered  battle.  The  astonished  king  feigned 
concession,  and  retired  to  await  the  levy  of  a larger 
force. 

The  Short  Parliament.  The  crisis  demanded  the 
action  of  Parliament,  and  the  king  w as  forced  to  issue 
the  usual  writs  for  an  election.  The  records  of  preced- 
ing Parliaments  would  answror  for  this.  Instead  of  vot- 
ing men  and  money  for  a Scotch  war,  it  demanded  re- 
dress, and,  after  a stormy  session  of  three  weeks,  was 
angrily  dissolved.  "Things  must  go  wmrse  before  they 
go  better,”  said  St.  John,  one  of  its  members.  They 
speedily  went  worse. 

A Great  Council  of  Peers,  assembled  at  York  as  a 

last  expedient,  accomplished  nothing  but  delay.  The 

advancing  Scots  had  reached  Xew  Castle  and  were  on 
© 

the  march  for  York.  Laud  was  mobbed  in  London, 

and  the  High  Commission  broken  up  at  St.  Paul’s.  All 

England  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  revolt,  wdien 

Charles  once  more,  and  for  the  last  time,  issued  his 

summons  for  a meeting  of  Parliament. 

© 

The  Long  Parliament.  Parliament  assembled  on 
the  3d  of  November,  1640.  Having  enacted  that  its 
dissolution  could  only  take  place  by  its  own  consent, 
it  continued,  with  expulsions  and  intermissions,  through 
a period  of  twrenty  years,  and  is  knowm  in  history  as 
the  Lonsr  Parliament.  All  the  accumulated  £i*iev- 
ances  of  the  people  since  the  advent  of  the  Stuarts 
w~ere  poured  into  the  House  of  Commons,  in  the  shape 
of  complaints  and  petitions,  requiring  the  labors  of  forty 


190 


CHARLES  I. 


committees  for  their  examination.  Then  began  the 
sharp  work  of  reform.  Patriots  were  released  from 
prison ; the  Star  Chamber  and  High  Commission 
abolished;  the  judgment  against  Hampden  annulled; 
ship  money  and  arbitrary  taxation  once  more  for- 
bidden, and  royal  officers  impeached.  Laud  and  Straf- 
ford, the  two  able  but  servile  agents  of  the  King,  were 
thrown  into  the  Tower,  whence  they  came  only  to  lay 
their  heads  upon  the  block. 

The  Attempt  of  Charles  to  Arrest  the  Five  Members. 
The  King  looked  bitterly  but  helplessly  on,  while  the 
absolutism  in  which  he  had  sought  to  entrench  himself 
was  roughly  swept  away.  Conscious  that  his  throne 
was  crumbling  beneath  him,  he  attempted  by  one 
master-stroke  to  crush  out  all  opposition  and  re-estab- 
lish his  lost  authority.  His  blow  was  aimed  directly 
at  the  House  of  Commons.  With  a company  of  sol- 
diers at  his  back,  he  appeared  at  the  door  of  the  Com- 
mons Chamber,  and  demanded  the  surrender  of  five 
of  its  members  on  a charge  of  high  treason.  Fym  and 
Hampden  were  of  the  number.  " I see  my  birds  have 
flown,”  said  the  king,  after  looking  carefully  over 
the  silent  assembly.  With  the  expectation  that  " they 
would  send  the  accused  members  to  him,”  and  a threat 
"to  secure  them  for  himself  if  they  did  not,”  the 
baffled  king  abruptly  left  the  chamber. 

Civil  War  Inevitable.  The  crisis  had  come.  The 
occasion  was  too  solemn  for  business,  and  the  House 
adjourned.  The  next  day  a royal  proclamation  branded 
the  five  members  as  traitors  and  ordered  their  arrest. 
London  rose  as  one  man  for  their  defence.  Its  train- 
bands  held  the  city  and  guarded  the  House  of  Com- 


CHARLES  I. 


191 


mons.  They  escorted  the  historical  live  back  to  their 
scats  amidst  the  shouts  of  the  excited  people.  Both 
parties  began  to  prepare  for  the  war  that  was  now  in- 
evitable. The  king  raised  his  standard  at  Nottingham, 
August  22d,  1642.  Parliament  ordered  the  enrollment 
and  muster  of  the  militia. 

Roundheads  and  Cavaliers.  The  great  English 
people,  farmers,  traders,  and  artisans,  mostly  Puritans, 
with  a sprinkling  of  peers,  rallied  around  Parliament, 
and  were  called  Roundheads,  from  the  Puritan  practice 
of  wearing  closely-cut  hair.  A majority  of  the  nobles, 
gentry,  and  clergy,  took  sides  with  the  king,  and  from 
their  gallant  bearing  were  called  Cavaliers. 

The  two  great  parties  into  which  England  resolved 
itself,  the  one  democratic  and  the  other  aristocratic, 
the  one  aiming  at  progress  and  reform,  and  the  other 
clinging  to  the  traditions  of  the  past,  have  continued 
to  this  day,  under  the  names  of  Whig  and  Tory,  Lib- 
eral and  Conservative,  to  struggle  for  the  mastery. 

Presbyterianism  Made  the  National  Religion.  Par- 
liament secured  the  aid  of  the  Scots,  by  signing  the 
Covenant,  and  adopting  the  Presbyterian  as  the  national 
religion.  As  an  offset  Charles  sought  help  from  the 
Irish.  In  1633,  Strafford  had  been  sent  to  Ireland,  and 
for  seven  years  had  maintained  in  that  country  the  iron 
despotism  Charles  struggled  in  vain  to  establish  in  Eng- 
gland.  After  Strafford’s  execution  in  1641,  and  as  a 
result  of  his  severity,  there  broke  out  a wide-spread 
revolt  of  the  Catholic  Irish  against  the  Protestant  Eng- 
lish. It  was  located  chiefly  in  Ulster,  that  had  been 
settled,  thirty  years  before,  in  the  reign  of  James  I f 


192 


CHARLES  I. 


by  colonics  of  English  Protestants.  In  a few  days 
forty  thousand  people  of  English  birth  were  slain. 
The  plan  of  King  Charles  to  bring  over  an  Irish  army 
to  slaughter  the  English  on  their  own  soil  caused  the 
most  intense  excitement  even  among  his  own  adhe- 
rents.  Officers  in  large  numbers  and  of  all  grades 
threw  up  their  commissions  in  the  royal  army  and  went 
over  to  the  other  side. 

Edgehill,  A.D.  1642.  The  first  conflict,  at  Edge- 
hill,  was  favorable  to  the  king.  Successive  disasters 
in  various  quarters  darkened  the  prospects  of  the 
patriot  cause.  Not  the  least  among  these  was  the 
death,  in  a skirmish,  of  Hampden,  the  Washington  of 
England.  The  great  want  of  the  patriot  army  was  cav- 
alry. It  was  his  strength  in  this  arm  that  gave  the 
king  the  advantage  during  the  earlier  stages  of  the  war. 
A sturdy  Puritan  from  the  shire  of  Huntingdon,  whose 
military  genius  we  are  soon  to  recognize,  seeing  the 
want,  raised  a regiment  of  horse,  composed  of  men  of 
like  stamp  with  himself,  and  brought  it  into  the  field 

against  the  king. 

© © 

Naseby,  A.D.  1645.  In  the  battles  of  Marston 
Moor  and  Naseby,  Cromwell  at' the  head  of  his  invinci- 
ble " Ironsides,”  scattered  like  chaff  the  horsemen  of 
Prince  Rupert,  and  then  charging  the  close  ranks  of 
royal  infantry,  put  them  to  utter  rout.  The  king, 
conscious  after  the  battle  of  Naseby  that  all  was  lost, 
rode  into  a camp  of  the  Scots  on  the  river  Trent,  and 
surrendered  himself  to  Lord  Leven,  its  commander. 

Struggle  Between  Presbyterians  and  Independents. 
The  Puritans  of  England  were  divided  into  two  prin- 
cipal sects,  Independents  and  Presbyterians.  The 


CHARLES  l 


193 


former  held  that  each  individual  church  with  its  pastor 
should  regulate  its  own  affairs,  independent  of  all 
others.  The  latter  accepted  the  higher  and  ultimate 
authority  of  synods  and  bishops.  The  Independents 
were  identical  with  the  Separatists  of  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  of  whom  the  refugees  at  Leyden  and  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers  formed  important  bodies.  But  their 
original  idea  of  church  independence  widened  towards 
the  close  of  the  war  into  that  of  the  complete  separa- 
tion of  Church  and  State.  The  Presbyterian  majority 
in  Parliament  proceeded  to  reorganize  the  Church  of 
England  on  the  Presbyterian  plan. 

The  perils  that  environed  civil  liberty  passed  away 
with  the  surrender  of  the  king  to  Lord  Leven,  but  the 
religious  intolerance  that  remained,  and  to  which  the 
Puritan  majority  still  clung,  became  almost  as  danger- 
ous to  the  State  as  the  absolutism  they  had  abolished. 
They  had  removed  the  civil,  only  to  impose  the  relig- 
ious, yoke  upon  the  necks  of  their  brethren. 

Each  party  sought  reconciliation  and  alliance  with 
the  king,  as  a means  of  success  for  itself;  the  Indepen- 
dents on  the  basis  of  religious  toleration,  the  Presby- 
terians on  the  adoption  of  the  Covenant.  Charles 
rejected  the  offers  of  both  parties,  expecting  to  bring 
the  one  or  the  other  to  his  own  terms.  "I  am  not 
without  hope,”  wrote  he,  " that  I shall  be  able  to  draw 
either  the  Presbyterians  or  the  Independents  to  side 
with  me  for  extirpating  one  another,  so  that  I shall  be 
really  king  again.”  "What  will  become  of  us,”  asked 
a Presbyterian,  "now  that  the  king  has  rejected  our 
proposals  ?”  " What  would  have  become  of  us,”  replied 


194 


CHARLES  I. 


an  Independent,  " had  lie  accepted  them  ? ” Parliament 
bargained  with  the  Scots  for  the  possession  of  Charles’s 
person,  paying  £400,000,  the  amount  due  them. 

Struggle  Between  Parliament  and  the  Army.  The 
Presbyterians, now  believing  their  victory  assured,  took 
a more  decided  stand.  They  established  Presbyteries 
throughout  the  country,  and  voted  to  disband  the  old 
army  which  was  Independent,  and  organize  a new  one 
with  Presbyterians  at  the  head.  Tlie  quarrel  between 
the  religious  sects  in  Parliament  now  changed  to  a 
struggle  between  Parliament*  and  the  army,  ending,  as 
we  shall  soon  see,  in  the  defeat  of  the  former,  and  the 
establishment  and  continuance  of  military  rule  for  a 
period  of  nearly  twelve  years.  The  army  refused  to 
disband,  without  an  assurance  of  religious  toleration. 
A body  of  its  troopers  surrounded  the  Ilolmby  House  in 
which  the  king  was  detained,  and  took  him  into  custody. 
Parliament  charged  Cromwell  with  inciting  the  act. 
While  denying  the  charge,  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
his  old  soldiers  and  was  soon  on  the  road  to  London. 
Royal  intrigue  and  treachery  towards  both  parties, — the 
flight  of  the  king  to  the  Isle  of  Wight,  his  unsuccessful 
effort  to  reach  the  continent,  and  his  detention  in  Car- 
isbrook  Castle, — a treaty  with  the  Presbyterians,  the 
principal  terms  of  which  were  the  assent  of  the  king  to 
the  Covenant,  and  his  re-instatement  on  the  throne, — 
the  mustering  of  the  Cavaliers  in  various  quarters,  and 
the  passage  of  the  border  by  an  army  of  Scots,  to  co- 
operate with  the  Royalists, —were  events  that  transpired 
in  rapid  succession. 

The  Army  Becomes  Supreme.  At  the  head  of  an 
army  only  too  willing  to  follow  where  Cromwef*  led, 


CHARLES  I. 


195 


with  amazing  rapidity  lie  scattered  the  cavaliers  mus- 
tering in  the  West,  and  then,  turning  northward,  crush- 
ed the  Scots  at  a blow  and  entered  Edinburgh.  Fresh 
concessions  on  the  part  of  the  king  had  given  the  latter 
an  overwhelming  majority  in  Parliament,  and  he  was 
again  seized  by  a body  of  troopers,  and  hurried  away  to 
Castle  Hurst.  A few  weeks  found  Cromwell  again  in 
London.  Surrounding  the  Parliament  building  with 
his  soldiers,  he  excluded  all  the  Presbyterian  members. 
The  Independents  remaining  were  called  the  "Bump 
Parliament.”  They  assumed,  as  representatives  of  the 
people,  the  supreme  power  of  the  State,  and  proceeded 
to  the  most  radical  legislation. 

The  High  Court  of  Justice.  They  organized  a 
"High  Court  of  Justice,”  composed  of  seventy  princi- 
pal officers  and  members,  for  the  trial  of  Charles  Stuart 
on  a charge  of  high  treason.  This  Court  met  at  West- 
minster  on  the  20th  of  January,  1649.  Charles 
denied  its  legality  and  refused  to  plead.  On  the  27th, 
he  was  adjudged  guilty  and  condemned  to  death.  The 
death  warrant  was  signed  on  the  29th,  and  on  the 
30th  the  unfortunate  king  was  beheaded  in  front  of 
Whitehall.  The  scaffold  on  which  he  suffered  was 
covered  with  black  and  surrounded  with  soldiers.  As 
the  masked  executioner,  raising  the  head  of  the  king 
streaming  with  blood,  cried  aloud,  " This  is  the  head 
of  a traitor,”  a deep  but  audible  groan  burst  from 
the  assembled  people,  who  tied  horror-stricken  from 
the  awful  scene.  The  people  of  England  had  never 
before  witnessed  the  execution  of  their  king,  and 
Charles  had  borne  himself,  during  the  course  of  the 
trial,  with  such  kingly  dignity,  and,  after  the  fatal  sen- 


196 


CHARLES  I. 


tence,  with  such  patience  and  resignation,  as  to  win 
their  reverence  and  sympathy.  The  anniversary  of  his 
death  was  observed  with  religious  services,  as  the  " Day 
of  King  Charles  the  Martyr,”  from  the  restoration  in 
1660,  to  the  year  1859. 

Three  of  Charles’s  children  deserve  notice  ; Charles, 
Prince  of  Wales;  James,  Duke  of  York;  and  Mary. 
The  two  former  became  Kings  of  England  in  turn. 
Mary  married  William,  Prince  of  Nassau,  and  her  son 
William  became  king  after  James. 

The  Commonwealth,  1619  to  1660  — 11  years. 

The  Commonwealth  and  its  Perils.  In  less  than  a 
month  after  the  execution  of  the  king,  the  Monarchy  was 
formally  abolished  and  a Republic,  under  the  name  of 
Commonwealth,  erected  in  its  stead.  The  House  of 
Lords  shared  the  fate  of  the  throne,  and  the  Rump  Com- 
mons were  left  the  sole  and  supreme  authority.  They 
created  a Council  of  State,  composed  of  forty-one  of 
their  own  members,  as  the  executive  branch  of  the 
government.  Perils  early  thickened  around  the  young 
Republic.  The  violent  death  of  the  king  at  the  hands 
of  his  subjects  caused  an  intense  excitement  among  the 
monarchs  of  Europe.  The  minister?  of  England  were 
driven  from  some  of  the  capitals  and  murdered  in 
ethers.  Holland  made  haste  to  recognize  Prince 
Charles,  then  a refugee  at  the  Hague,  as  King  of  Eng- 
land. 

The  proud  Cavaliers,  though  beaten  into  silence, 
looked  with  deadly  hatred,  as  well  as  unspeakable  dis- 
gust, upon  the  Puritan  Republic,  and  they  only  waited 
for  a favorable  turn  of  events  to  attempt  the  restora- 


THE  COMMONWEALTH. 


197 


tion  of  the  Monarchy.  But  the  first  movements  of  a 
royalist  outbreak  were  crushed  by  the  iron  hand  of 
Cromwell.  A most  dangerous  spirit  had  crept  into  the 
army,  which,  if  unchecked,  would  have  led  to  the 
wildest  excesses.  The  soldiers  began  to  rise  in  mutiny 
against  their  officers.  Mingled  severity  and  mercy, 
promptly  applied  by  the  same  vigorous  hand,  cured  the 
discontent  that  was  demoralizing  the  army. 

The  royalists  in  Ireland  raised  the  standard  of  the 
Stuarts  and  speedily  took  every  town  but  Dublin. 
Cromwell  was  dispatched  with  twelve  thousand  troops 
to  reduce  them  to  order.  His  campaign  was  short 
but  terrible.  He  began  with  the  capture  of  Drogheda 
and  the  merciless  slaughter  of  its  garrison  of  three 
thousand  men.  Town  after  town  opened  its  gates,  in 
panic,  at  his  command,  or  quickly  fell  before  his  as- 
saults. The  memory  of  Ulster  nerved  every  arm  and 
steeled  every  heart  in  that  dread  army,  for  the  work  of 
vengeance.  Not  a man  taken  with  arms  in  his  hands 
was  spared. 

The  proclamation  of  Prince  Charles  in  Scotland,  and 
the  levy  of  an  army  for  the  invasion  of  England,  called 
Cromwell  back  to  London.  With  fifteen  thousand  men 
he  pushed  rapidly  across  the  border,  and,  in  a battle  of 
an  hour,  annihilated  the  Scotch  army  at  Dunbar  and 
entered  Edinburgh.  The  next  year  another  army  of 
Scots  under  Charles  himself,  finding  the  way  open, 
pushed  rapidly  southward  towards  London. 

Worcester,  A.  D.  1651.  By  forced  marches,  Crom- 
well  placed  his  army  directly  in  the  path  of  Charles 
at  Worcester.  Cromwell  characterized  this  battle  as 
his  "crowning  mercy.”  Scarcely  a Scot  escaped. 


198 


THE  COMMONWEALTH. 


Charles  saved  himself  by  flight ; but  left  almost  alone 
in  the  heart  of  England,  with  Cromwell’s  troopers  occu- 
pying every  road  and  scouring  the  country  in  search 
of  the  fugitive,  his  situation  was  perilous  in  the  ex- 
treme. Threading  his  way,  in  one  disguise  and  an- 
other, through  innumerable  dangers,  hiding  by  day 
and  journeying  by  night,  in  two  months  he  safely 
reached  the  southern  coast  and  took  passage  on  a collier 
for  France. 

Parliament  and  the  Army.  Whatever  may  be  said 
in  defence  of  the  extreme  course  of  the  Independents, 
both  in  Parliament  and  in  the  army,  on  the  score  of. 
self-preservation,  the  Rump  was  but  the  fragment  of  a 
Parliament,  and  its  long  continuance  was  felt  by  all 
parties  to  be  impolitic.  Charges*  of  greed  and  cor- 
ruption against  its  members  in  appropriating  the  public 
spoils  increased  the  odium  attached  to  its  name.  Hate- 
ful from  the  outset  to  all  denominations  but  its  own,  it 
was  fast  becoming  hateful  to  that.  Cromwell,  impa- 
tient at  the  selfishness  and  uncertainty  that  charac- 
terized its  action,  urged  a prompt  " settlement  of  the 
nation,”  and  an  early  dissolution.  Parliament,  in  re- 
taliation, resolved  to  disband  the  army.  Failing  in 
that,  it  sought  to  eclipse  the  splendor  of  its  fame,  by 
still  more  splendid  achievements  on  the  sea.  The 
Dutch  and  English  nations  were  maritime  rivals,  and 
their  mutual  jealousy  was  ready  to  break  into  open 
hostility  on  the  slightest  provocation.  A statute,  called 
the  "Navigation  Act,”  requiring  all  nations  trading 
with  England  to  bring  their  products  to  English  ports 
in  their  own  vessels,  was  aimed  at  the  commerce  of  the 
Dutch,  the  common  carriers  of  Europe.  The  English 


TIIE  COMMONWEALTH. 


199 


required  the  ships  of  other  nations  to  lower  tlieir  Hags 
in  British  waters.  Ail  English  licet  under  Blake  met 
a Dutch  fleet  under  Van  Tromp  in  the  Downs.  Blake’s 
signal  of  three  guns  for  the  customary  salute  to  the 
English  flag  was  answered  by  Van  Tromp  with  a 
broadside.  The  fight  that  followed  led  to  a declara- 
tion of  war  with  Holland.  The  first  conflict  sent  the 
Dutch  under  De  Buy  ter  into  port  to  refit ; the  second 
forced  the  English,  under  Blake,  to  seek  the  shelter  of 
the  Thames,  while  Van  Tromp  exultingly  swept  the 
English  Channel  with  a broom  at  his  masthead ; the 
third  seriously  crippled  Van  Tromp,  and,  for  a time, 
gave  Blake  undisputed  possession  of  the  sea.  Before 
this  last  victory  of  the  English  fleet,  there  was  an  un- 
derstanding that  Parliament  should  soon  dissolve  and 
the  army  disband  ; after  it,  the  former  evinced  a dispo- 
sition not  to  dissolve  at  all. 

The  Expulsion  of  the  Rump  Parliament.  In  1653, 
a plan  was  made  to  call  a new  Parliament,  in  which  all 
the  members  of  the  old  Parliament  should  continue  to 
hold  seats,  and  also  act  as  judges  of  the  election  of 
new  members.  Cromwell,  who  was  a member  of  Par- 
liament, was  opposed  to  this  scheme.  A mutual  council 
at  Whitehall  adjourned  for  one  day,  with  the  under- 
standing that  no  action  should  be  taken  in  the  mean- 
time. At  the  time  appointed  for  the  second  meeting, 
but  few  of  the  friends  and  none  of  the  leaders  of  the 
measure  were  present.  A messenger  soon  arrived  at 
Whitehall  with  the  announcement  that  the  bill  wa3  under 
discussion  in  Parliament  and  about  to  pass.  Crom- 
well’s hesitation  vanished.  Taking  a file  of  soldiers 
and  posting  them  in  the  lobby  of  the  Parliament  Cham- 


200 


TIIE  COMMONWEALTH. 


her,  lie  entered  and  took  his  accustomed  seat.  As  lie 
listened  to  the  arguments  of  Vane  who  was  speaking  in 
behalf  of  the  bill,  he  said  to  one  who  sat  by  his  side, 
"I  am  come  to  do  what  grieves  me  to  the  heart.”  But 
he  continued  to  listen.  "The  time  has  come,”  said  he, 
at  length,  to  another.  "Think  well,  it  is  dangerous 
work,”  was  the  reply.  Still  he  waited,  but,  just  as  the 
bill  was  evidently  about  to  pass,  lie  arose  in  his  place 
and  stepped  out  into  the  middle  of  the  chamber.  Pour- 
ing forth  a torrent  of  abuse  upon  the  members  of  the 
opposition,  he  stamped  his  foot  as  a signal  for  the  sol- 
diers to  enter.  " Your  hour  has  come,”  were  his  words 
as  the  soldiers  filed  into  the  room,  "the  Lord  hath  done 
with  you.  It  is  not  fit  that  you  should  sit  here  any 
longer.  You  should  give  place  to  better  men.  You 
are  no  Parliament.”  The  Speaker  was  forced  from  his 
seat  and  the  room  quickly  cleared  by  the  soldiery. 
Lifting  the  mace  from  the  table,  "What,”  inquired  he, 
" shall  we  do  with  this  bauble  ? Take  it  away.” 
Cromwell  Made  Lord  Protector.  The  Council  of 
State,  dismissed  with  as  little  ceremony  as  Parliament, 
was  followed  by  another  council,  and  that  by  a con- 
vention, composed  of  Independents  selected  from  lists 
furnished  by  the  churches,  and  called  the  Little  Parlia- 
ment, or  Barebone’s  Parliament.  It  accomplished 
nothing,  and  voted  its  own  dissolution  after  appointing 
still  another  council,  composed  of  eight  men  with 
Cromwell  at  the  head.  This  council  summoned  a Par- 
liament to  represent  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 
the  right  to  vote  for  members  being  granted  to  all 
having  a property  of  two  hundred  pounds,  except 
Catholics  and  those  who  had  fought  for  the  king.  Dur- 


THE  COMMONWEALTH. 


201 


ing  the  interim  of  nine  months,  for  the  preservation  of 
order,  Cromwell  was  induced  by  the  council  to  assume 
the  government  with  the  title  of  Lord  Protector. 

The  same  body  adopted  an  Instrument  carefully  de- 
fining the  powers  of  the  Protector,  and  organizing  a 
strictly  constitutional  government.  The  advice  of  this 
council  was  made  necessary  in  the  management  of  for- 
eign affairs,  in  questions  of  peace  and  war,  and  in  the 
appointment  of  officers.  Parliament  was  to  meet  once 
in  three  years,  make  the  laws,  subject  for  twenty  days 
to  the  Protector’s  veto,  and  levy  taxes. 

Cromwell  Usurps  the  Government.  In  the  writs 
for  an  election  of  members,  it  had  been  expressly 
stated  that  Parliament  should  not  have  power  to  alter 
the  government  as  settled  in  a single  person  and  a Par- 
liament. Its  first  step  on  assembling  in  1654,  was  to 
take  into  consideration  the  organization  of  the  govern- 
ment.  The  question  of  the  Protector’s  veto  power  was 
debated  for  three  da}rs,  when  Cromwell,  barring  the 
way  to  the  Parliament  Chamber  by  a file  of  soldiers, 
turned  back  all  who  refused  to  sign  an  agreement  not 
to  alter  the  form  of  government.  Three  hundred  signed 
and  were  allowed  to  enter.  One  hundred  refused  and 
were  turned  back.  The  signers  adhered  to  their 
agreement,  but  fell  back  on  the  tactics  of  their  prede- 
cessors, refusing  to  vote  money  for  the  army  without 
a redress  of  grievances.  This  brought  an  angry  dis- 
solution, and  the  government  relapsed  into  the  ab- 
solutism from  which  the  civil  war  had  freed  it.  Taxes 
were  levied  and  laws  were  made,  on  the  sole  authority 
of  the  Protector.  The  reaction  in  the  public  mind  in 
favor  of  the  monarchy  was  intense.  Faith  in  the  fun- 


202 


THE  COMMONWEALTH. 


damental  principles  of  the  Commonwealth  faded  away, 
as  its  outward  fabric  crumbled  under  the  usurpations  of 
Cromwell.  Royalist  revolts  broke  out  in  various  quar- 
ters, but  they  were  easily  crushed  by  the  vigorous 
soldier  who  now  had  at  his  disposal  all  the  powers  of 
the  State.  England  was  divided  into  ten  military 
districts,  and  each  placed  under  martial  law.  Scot- 
land and  Ireland  were  reduced  to  order,  but  the  se- 
verities practiced  by  English  soldiers  in  the  latter 
country  have  left  to  this  day  their  bitter  fruit  of  undy- 
ing hatred  of  the  English  rule. 

Prosperity  Under  Cromwell’s  Rule.  In  spite  of  the 
discontent  and  opposition  of  the  royalists,  the  adminis- 
tration of  public  affairs  under  Cromwell  was  character- 
ized by  wisdom,  moderation,  and  success  almost  beyond 
precedent  in  the  history  of  England.  Cromwell  reformed 
the  law  and  made  its  administration  uniform.  "To 
hang  a man  for  sixpence  and  pardon  murder,”  as  he  ex- 
pressed it,  did  not  accord  with  his  idea  of  justice.  He 
never  swerved  from  the  great  principle  on  which  he  early 
took  his  stand,  the  principle  of  religious  toleration.  He 
allowed  the  Jews,  who  had  been  .banished  from  the 
realm  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I. , and  who  were  still 
hated  of  all  men,  to  return  to  England,  and  did  his 
best  to  protect  them.  To  a new  sect  of  Puritans, 
called  Quakers,  the  object  of  derision  to  all  others,  he 
extended  the  shield  of  his  power.  Cromwell’s  crude 
but  effective  statesmanship  was  best  displayed  in  his 
management  of  foreign  affairs.  Kings,  in  whose  capi- 
tals at  the  beginning  of  the  Commonwealth,  the  lives  of 
English  ministers  were  not  safe,  earnestly  solicited  his 
alliance.  A treaty  favorable  to  England  was  made 


THE  COMMONWEALTH. 


203 


with  Holland.  The  Mediterranean  was  cleared  of  the 
pirates  that  had  long  made  their  haunts  on  the  Afri- 
can shore,  and  the  liberation  of  the  white  slaves,  held 
by  the  Barbary  States,  secured.  Jamaica  and  Dunkirk 
were  taken  from  Spain,  and  an  entire  fleet  of  merchant 
ships  and  galleon  convoys  was  destroyed  in  the  harbor 
of  Santa  Cruz.  The  Waldenses,  occupying  the  valleys 
of  Piedmont,  among  the  Alps,  were  saved  from  mas- 
sacre by  his  determined  intercession.  In  1656,  Crom- 
well summoned  another  Parliament.  It  voted  supplies, 
but  it  protested  against  the  military  despotism  under 
which  England  continued.  Cromwell  at  once  withdrew 
the  soldiers  quartered  in  the  ten  military  divisions. 
Although,  on  account  of  the  opposition  of  the  army, 
he  refused  the  title  of  King,  which  this  Parliament  pro- 
posed to  confer  upon  him,  he  accepted  the  power  to 
name  his  own  successor. 

Cromwell’s  Death.  Cromwell  died  September  3rd, 
1658,  of  an  attack  of  ague,  hut  his  end  was  hastened  by 
anxiety.  His  last  years  were  full  of  trouble.  There  ^vas 
a growing  discontent  among  the  people  at  the  strictness 
of  his  government.  He  was  surrounded  by  conspira- 
cies, and  menaced  with  assassination.  He  became  a 
prey  to  perpetual  fear,  wearing  armor  under  his  cloth- 
ing, and  arms  about  his  person.  His  sleeping-room 
was  constantly  changed  to  lessen  the  danger  of  mid- 
night attacks,  and  in  going  abroad,  he  returned  by  a 
different  route  to  avoid  an  ambush  of  his  enemies. 

Cromwell’s  Character  and  Motives.  Of  Cromwell’s 
character  and  motives  there  is  a wide  difference  of 
opinion.  Personally,  he  was  one  of  nature’s  noblemen. 
Rising  from  the  common  walks  of  life  to  an  estate  and 


204 


TIIE  COMMONWEALTH. 


fame  truly  regal,  he  lost  neither  his  simplicity  nor  Ilia 
piety.  That  he  felt  some  of  the  promptings  of  ambi- 
tion, it  is  difficult  to  deny ; that  he  possessed  a great, 
earnest  soul,  chiefly  animated  by  a desire  to  promote 
the  welfare  of  his  country,  it  is  easy  to  believe. 
Had  Cromwell  been  of  royal  blood,  and  the  throne  his 
birthright,  his  reign  would  have  been  the  pride  and 
boast  of  Englishmen  through  all  time.  Cromwell  has 
been  compelled  to  bear  the  odium  of  all  the  extreme 
measures  that  followed  the  civil  war.  Both  when  he 
Avas  Captain  General  of  the  Puritan  army  and  Lord 
Protector  of  England,  did  his  moderate  counsels  avail 
to  defeat  the  wild  schemes  that  ahvays  spring  up  in 
times  of  revolution,  and  more  than  once  did  he  endan- 
ger his  influence  with  his  own  soldiers  by  his  conserAm- 
tism.  Armies  are  rarely  composed  of  men  of  such 
positive  minds  as  the  Puritan  soldiers.  Almost  any 
one  of  them  could  preach  to  his  felloAvs  Avhat  Avas  called 
a sermon,  and  he  had,  too,  his  own  ideas  of  govern- 
ment as  Avell  as  of  religion.  Even  a CromAvell  could 
not  always  mould  such  stiff-necked  material  entirely  to 
his  own  Avill.  It  has  been  Avisely  said  in  regard  to  his 
policy  with  his  army,  that  "to  ordinarily  govern,  Crom- 
well was  sometimes  compelled  to  submit.”  In  some 
respects  he  Avas  far  in  adArance  of  his  age.  England  ie 
to-day,  in  her  treatment  of  the  religious  question, 
sloAvly  plodding  along  in  the  path  CromAvell  marked 
out  for  her  more  than  tAvo  hundred  years  ago.  He  had 
an  intuitive  sense  of  the  nation’s  ills  and  the  proper 
remedies  to  be  applied.  That  his  intuitions  Avere,  in 
the  main,  correct,  finds  its  best  proof  in  the  marvelous 
success  of  his  policy. 


THE  COMMONWEALTH 


205 


In  his  government,  the  personal  and  constitutional 
elements  were  strangely  mingled.  Ruling  ordinarily 
in  accordance  with  the  laws,  he  did  not  hesitate,  on 
occasion,  to  override  or  change  them.  When  Parlia- 
ment failed  to  meet  his  expectations,  he  dismissed  it, 
and,  like  Charles,  ruled  alone.  There  the  similarity 
ends.  Charles  ruled  alone  to  maintain  the  royal  pre- 
rogative ; Cromwell  to  give  peace  and  prosperity  to 
England.  But  there  was,  while  Cromwell  lived,  a uni- 
versal feeling  that  the  laws  and  the  constitution  were 
ever  at  the  mercy  of  an  individual  will.  Such  a sys- 
tem as  Cromwell’s,  however  favorable  to  order  and 
progress  under  a wise  administration,  was  inconsistent 
with  a free  constitution.  Under  a weak  head,  it  would 
inevitably  result  in  anarchy;  under  an  ambitious  one, 
relapse  into  a despotism. 

But  Cromwell’s  enemies  were  unrelenting.  It  mat- 
tered  little  that  he  was  the  most  tolerant  man  in  Eng- 
land, to  priest  and  churchman  he  was  the  very  prince 
of  fanatics,  — that  his  rule  was  able  and  just,  com- 
manding the  respect  of  all  Christendom,  to  cavalier 
and  noble  he  was  only  an  upstart  and  an  interloper,  — 
that  he  made  his  country  so  great  and  powerful,  that 
the  very  name  of  Englishman  became  a shield  to  the 
humblest  citizen  that  bore  it,  in  any  part  of  the  civi- 
lized world,  to  the  royalist  he  was  but  a low-born 
usurper  and  a fit  mark  for  every  assassin’s  dagger. 
But  it  must  be  acknowledged,  that,  with  all  his  patriot- 
ism, Cromwell  was  a usurper.  The  ruler  who  can, 
even  once,  manifestly  set  aside  a settled  constitution, 
)r  trample  under  foot  established  law,  is  a usurper. 
This  Cromwell  did  at  will.  The  people  of  England 


206 


THE  COMMONWEALTH. 


had  just  struggled  through  one  revolution,  that  their 
traditional  liberties  might  be  preserved  to  them ; but 
when  the  despotism,  however  violent,  of  the  Stuarts, 
merely  gave  place  to  the  despotism,  however  mild,  of 
Cromwell,  freedom  was  won  only  to  be  lost  again. 
The  legitimate  result  of  CromwelPs  usurpation  in 
1653,  was  the  return  of  the  Stuarts  in  1660,  and  the 
disappearance  of  religious  toleration  and  constitutional 
liberty  for  almost  a generation. 

Richard  Cromwell.  Cromwell  named  his  son  Rich- 
ard as  his  successor.  The  father  was  both  soldier  and 
statesman,  the  son  was  neither;  and  so,  after  a few 
months  of  fruitless  effort  to  control  a mutinous  army 
and  govern  an  almost  rebellious  people,  Richard  re- 
signed the  Protectorship  and  retired  to  private  life. 

The  Restoration.  General  Monk  wras  in  Scotland  at 
the  head  of  a well-appointed  force.  He  commenced 
at  once  his  march  towards  London,  where  his  arrival 
wras  awaited  with  indescribable  anxiety.  Though  long 
silent  as  to  his  intentions,  he  was  favorable  to  the  res- 
toration of  the  monarchy,  and  was  in  secret  corres- 
pondence with  Prince  Charles,  who  was  at  Breda. 
The  famous  " Long  Parliament,”  once  more  coming  to- 
gether, issued  writs  for  a new  election,  and  voted  its 
own  dissolution,  just  twenty  years  from  its  first  meet- 
ing. The  new  Parliament  assembled  on  the  25th  of 
April,  1660,  and,  agreeably  to  the  wishes  of  all  parties, 
invited  Prince  Charles  to  return  to  the  home  and  throne 
of  his  father.  He  landed  at  Dover  on  the  25th  of 
May,  and  was  crowned  King  of  England  on  the  29th. 
This  is  known  in  history  as  " The  Restoration.” 


THE  COMMONWEALTH. 


207 


The  Last  Muster  of  the  Puritan  Army.  One  of 

the  most  suggestive  pictures  presented  to  us  in  the 
annals  of  the  English  nation,  is  that  of  the  old  Puritan 
army,  thirty  thousand  strong,  drawn  up  at  Blackheath, 
to  witness  the  return  of  Charles.  It  might  be  called 
"The  Downfall  of  Puritanism.”  Those  grim  and  stal- 
wart men,  who  had  been  the  arbiters  of  the  fate  of 
England  for  nearly  twenty  years,  whose  resistless 
charges  had  carried  dismay  into  the  ranks  of  the 
enemy  at  home  and  abroad,  stood  like  lifeless  statues, 
while  the  ringing  bells  and  glad  shouts  of  the  people 
welcomed  the  returning  Stuart  to  the  throne  of  his 
ancestors.  They  had  swept  away  the  Throne,  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  the  Established  Church,  and  had 
reorganized,  or  dismissed  at  will,  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. But  in  the  presence  of  the  people,  re-inspired 
with  their  old  reverence  for  royalty,  they  were  beaten 
without  a battle.  Sadly  and  thoughtfully,  but  without 
a murmur,  they  laid  down  their  arms  and  quietly  re- 
turned to  their  former  homes,  henceforth  to  be  distin- 
guished from  their  neighbors  only  by  greater  industry 
and  sobriety.  Cromwell  had  been  the  representative 
of  Puritanism,  and  his  usurpation  of  power  was  regard- 
ed as  a Puritan  usurpation.  When,  therefore,  he  assum- 
ed all  of  royalty  but  the  name,  and  ruled  England 
through  his  army  instead  of  his  Parliament,  Puritanism 
became  a political  force  instead  of  a moral  power,  and 
its  fall  at  the  death  of  Cromwell  was  inevitable. 

Charles  II.,  1680  to  1685  — 25  years.  Stuart. 

The  Circumstances  under  Which  Charles  Became 
King.  Charles  II.  ascended  the  throne  in  1660,  but 


208 


CHARLES  II. 


English  history  dates  the  beginning  of  his  reign  from 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1649.  The  circumstances 
under  which  he  became  an  actual  sovereign  were  aus- 
picious.  Perhaps  no  English  king  was  ever  welcomed 
to  the  throne  with  so  wild  a delight  as  he.  A few 
words  as  to  the  circumstances  may  be  proper. 

That  Cromwell  was  just  in  his  rule  and  made  Eng- 
land glorious,  did  not  reconcile  the  people  to  the  es- 
sential despotism  he  established.  Even  Republicans 
were  unwilling  to  live  under  a government  republican 
only  in  name.  After  the  death  of  Cromwell,  and 
during  the  administration  of  his  son  Richard,  the  gov- 
ernment was  fast  relapsing  into  anarchy.  With  Rich- 
ard’s retirement,  England  was  not  only  left  without  a 
head,  but  without  a settled  form  of  government.  The 
monarchy  had  been  abolished  and  the  republic  had 
proved  a failure.  What  would  follow  none  could  tell; 
but  it  was  plain  to  all,  that  the  soldiers  in  arms  were 
the  sole  arbiters  of  the  fate  of  England.  The  one  fate 
to  be  dreaded  was  a succession  of  irresponsible  military 
rulers.  Puritans  and  Churchmen,  Republicans  and 
Royalists,  beheld  the  gulf  that  yawned  before  them,  and, 
for  a time,  forgot  their  differences.  For  a peril  that 
all  could  see  but  none  could  fathom,  there  was  but  one 
alternative,  — the  restoration  of  the  monarchy  and  the 
return  of  the  Stuarts.  It  was  not  then  the  fickleness 
of  the  English  people,  as  is  too  often  charged,  but  their 
conscious  and  narrow  escape  from  nameless  national 
woes,  that  caused  such  unbounded  enthusiasm  when 
Charles  Stuart  re-entered  the  capital  of  his  ancestors. 

The  Social  Revolution.  The  extreme  legislation 
of  the  Puritans  had  made  their  rule  irksome  to 


CHARLES  II. 


209 


the  people.  Innocent  amusements  had  been  strictly 
prohibited,  and  piety,  or  its  profession,  had  been  made 
an  essential  qualification  for  office.  With  the  restora- 
tion of  the  monarchy  and  a repeal  of  Puritan  legisla- 
tion, there  was  an  inevitable  reaction.  The  dance 
around  the  May-pole  on  the  village  green  was  never  so 
joyous  as  now,  and  Christmas  festivities  returned  with 
more  than  their  wonted  hilarity.  Had -Charles  pos- 
sessed but  ordinary  wisdom,  could  the  experience  of 
his  father  and  his  own  early  misfortunes  have  taught 
him  the  one  lesson  to  study  and  respect  the  wishes  of 
the  people,  his  reign  would  have  been  peaceful  and 
popular.  But  he  broke  every  promise  he  had  made, 
and  disappointed  every  expectation  of  the  people. 

Although  they  welcomed  the  removal  of  unnatural 
restraints,  they  were  not  prepared  for  the  unbridled 
license  that  prevailed  throughout  the  country  after  the 
restoration.  Before  long  they  were  turning  in  disgust 
from  the  king  they  had  welcomed  so  heartily,  and  wish- 
ing they  had  the  great  Oliver  back  again.  Nothing 
more  vividly  illustrates  the  extent  of  this  social  revo- 
lution than  the  history  of  the  stage.  During  the  Puri- 
tan period,  theatrical  performances,  however  innocent, 
had  been  rigidly  prohibited.  With  Charles  returned 
the  theatre,  foul  and  revolting,  without  even  a French 
refinement  to  its  grossness.  But  the  painted  scenery 
and  loose  manner?  of  the  new  stage  only  reflected  real 
life  in  fashionable  circles.  The  king  himself  led  the 
shameless  revels  of  the  royal  court ; the  court  gave  the 
standard  of  morality  to  the  capital ; and  thence  the 
deadly  contagion  spread,  infecting  fashionable  society 
in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Religion  became  a by- 


210 


CHARLES  II. 


word  and  morality  a mockery.  It  is  but  just  to  say 
that  the  great  mass  of  the  English  people  remained  un- 
affected by  this  incoming  tide  of  vice.  Although  Pu- 
ritanism, as  a political  power,  had  fallen,  and  its  very 
name  had  become  a jest  among  the  now  dominant  cav- 
aliers, the  sturdy  virtues  and  the  deep  religious  spirit 
that  were  its  very  essence,  had  been  too  deeply  im- 
planted in  the  .minds  and  hearts  of  the  English  people 
to  be  easily  removed.  They  still  remained  to  mould 
English  character,  and  modify  English  institutions,  and 
they  are,  to-day,  the  richest  inheritance  of  the  English 
people. 

The  Convention  Parliament.  The  Parliament  that 
restored  the  monarchy  is  called  the  " Convention  Par- 
liament.” It  early  passed  an  " Act  of  Oblivion  and 
Indemnity  ” extending  a general  pardon  to  all  offenders, 
Except  certain  of  the  Regicides.  Of  these,  thirteen 
were  executed  and  many  imprisoned  for  life,  although 
Charles  had  virtually  promised  to  pardon  all  who  vol- 
untarily came  forward  and  surrendered  themselves. 
Many  fled  to  foreign  parts,  three  of  them,  Gofle, 
Whalley,  and  Dixwell,  finding  refuge  in  America. 
This  Act  restored  to  the  Royalists  the  estates  taken 
from  them  by  the  Commonwealth,  except  when  the 
transfer  had  been  made  by  sale,  but  it  gave  them  no 
redress  for  other  losses.  The  dissatisfied  cavaliers 
pronounced  the  " Act  ” one  of  oblivion  to  the  king’s 
friends  and  indemnity  to  his  enemies,  for  they  had  been 
mulcted  without  mercy  under  the  Commonwealth,  and 
many  had  been  forced  to  part  with  their  estates  to  meet 
the  demands  of  the  government.  This  Parliament 
abolished  the  last  relic  of  the  Feudal  System,  the  ten- 


CHARLES  II. 


211 


lire  of  lands  by  knight  service,  including  the  wardship 
of  minors  and  the  marriage  of  heiresses,  that  had  been 
fruitful  sources  of  income  to  the  king,  in  place  of  which 
he  received  a life-grant  of  £1,200,000. 

The  Restoration  of  the  Episcopal  Religion.  The 
dissolution  of  this  Parliament  and  a new  election  re- 
sulted in  the  return  of  the  " Cavalier  Parliament  ” of 
1661.  This  body  attempted  by  successive  acts  to  re- 
establish Episcopacy  as  the  national  religion.  " The 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant  ” was  ordered  to  be  burned 
by  the  public  hangman.  Charles  himself  became  an 
Episcopalian,  declaring  that  "Presbyterianism  was  no 
religion  for  a gentleman.”  The  " Corporation  Act  ” re- 
quired all  public  officers  to  worship  in  accordance  with 
the  usages  of  the  established  church,  and  to  deny  the 
right  of  the  subject  to  bear  arms  against  the  king.  The 
" Act  of  Uniformity”  required  all  the  clergy  to  adopt  the 
prayer-book  and  assent  to  all  its  contents,  on  pain  of 
expulsion.  Two  thousand  Puritan  clergymen  were 
ejected  from  their  livings  in  one  day,  the  anniversary 
of  St.  Bartholomew,  for  non-compliance. 

Attempt  to  Force  Episcopacy  upon  the  Scots.  To 
gain  the  aid  of  the  Scotch  Presbyterians,  Prince 
Charles,  on  New  Year’s  Day,  1651,  solemnly  signed  the 
Covenant  at  Scone,  thus  pledging  himself  to  support 
the  Presbyterian  religion.  But  he  now  not  only  turned 
Episcopalian  himself,  but  he  resolved  to  force  Episcopacy 
upon  the  Scots.  The  Earl  of  Lauderdale  was  sent  to 
Scotland  with  unlimited  powers  to  carry  out  the  wishes 
of  the  king.  Bishops  were  appointed,  and  soldiers 
posted  at  the  various  centres  to  compel  attendance  on 
the  worship  of  the  established  church,  and  to  collect 


212 


CHARLES  II. 


fines  from  11011-attendants.  A11  impotent  rising  of  the 
persecuted  Covenanters  in  the  neighborhood  of  Edin- 
burgh became  an  excuse  for  the  most  barbarous  legisla- 
tion, and  the  most  dreadful  cruelty.  The  " thumb- 
screw” and  " boot  ” became  common  instruments  of  tor- 
ture. From  this  time,  1662,  to  the  Revolution,  in  1688, 
the  Scotch  Coyenanters  maintained  their  faith  amidst 
persecutions  and  sufferings,  from  which  the  mind  re- 
coils with  horror. 

The  " Conventicle  Act”  forbade  all  Puritan  assemblies 
for  public  worship.  The  faithful  Covenanters,  armed 
for  self-defence,  held  secret  meetings,  at  midnight,  in  the 
depths  of  the  woods.  English  soldiers  sometimes 
burst  upon  them  with  merciless  slaughter.  The  sea- 
girt prison  on  Bass  Rock,  and  the  gloomy  w^alls  of  Dun- 
barton Castle,  witnessed  many  an  awful  death  by  slow 
and  cruel  torture,  many  a sad  and  lingering  one  in  dark 
and  dreary  dungeons.  The  "Five  Mile  Act”  forbade 
non-conforming  clergymen  to  appear  within  five  miles 
of  any  town  or  the  places  of  their  former  worship,  and 
excluded  them  from  the  work  of  instructing  the  young, 
dooming  them  to  penury  and  even  starvation  and  death. 
An  Act  was  passed  for  the  suppression  of  Quakers,  who 
were  specially  odious  to  the  Cavaliers,  from  their  refusal 
to  bear  arms.  English  as  well  as  Scotch  prisons  were 
crowded  with  Puritan  offenders. 

Foreign  Affairs.  The  history  of  the  foreign  affairs  of 
this  reign  is  but  a humiliating  record  of  royal  intrigue 
and  treachery.  Charles  is  charged  with  involving 
the  country  in  war  for  the  simple  purpose  of  obtain- 
ing a vote  of  money  for  its  prosecution.  The  money 
once  in  his  hands  went  to  the  support  of  shameless 


CHARLES  IT. 


213 


favorites,  while  English  ships  were  left  to  decay,  and 
their  crews  remained  unpaid.  The  first  of  these  wars 
was  with  Holland.  It  grew  out  of  the  rivalry  of  the 
Dutch  and  English  merchants  seeking  a monopoly  of 
the  trade  in  gold-dust  and  ivory  on  the  coast  of 
Guinea.  An  English  fleet,  sent  to  America  during  the 
first  year  of  this  war,  16G4,  compelled  the  surrender 
of  all  the  Dutch  colonies  to  England.  The  govern- 
ment of  these  colonies  was  granted  by  the  king  to 
his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York,  from  whom  New  York 
received  its  name. 

The  Plague  in  London.  A signal  victory,  gained  off 
the  Suffolk  coast,  near  Lowestoft,  caused  little  exulta- 
tion in  London,  for  an  enemy  more  dreaded  than  the 
Dutch  was  already  in  the  suburbs  of  the  great  city. 
The  worst  fears  were  realized.  That  dread  pesti- 
lence, the  Plague,  was  soon  in  every  house,  bring- 
ing death  and  consternation  to  the  crowded  population. 
In  six  months  one  hundred  thousand  persons  died. 
Grass  grew  in  streets  that  were  once  the  busy  marts 
of  trade.  Scarcely  a sound  was  heard  but  the  rumbling 
of  the  carts,  and  the  cries  of  the  attendants  echoing 
through  the  city  and  piercing  the  death-haunted  houses, 
"Bring  out  your  dead,  bring  out  your  dead.” 

The  Great  Fire  of  Loudon.  During  the  next  year, 
1666,  called  by  Dryden  the  "Year  of  Wonders,”  the 
greater  part  of  the  city  was  laid  in  ashes  by  an  extensive 
conflagration.  In  the  end  the  fire  proved  a blessing, 
for  it  destroyed  the  filthy  sections  still  infested  by  the 
Plague,  and,  in  time,  narrow  lanes  and  wretched  hovels 
gave  place  to  wide,  well-di^ained  streets,  and  more  com- 
modious dwellings. 

w 


214 


CHARLES  IT. 


During  the  year  following  the  fire,  the  Dutch,  every- 
where victorious  by  reason  of  the  decay  of  the  Eng- 
lish navy,  sailed  up  the  Thames  and  threatened  London 
itself.  The  war  was  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Breda, 
in  1G68.  Clarendon,  who  had  been  at  the  head  of  affairs 
of  state,  becoming  unpopular  on  account  of  the  war,  was 
compelled  to  resign  to  escape  impeachment.  lie  wras 
succeeded  by  a Cabinet,  or  Cabal,*  composed  of  five 
members. 

Charles  a Pensioner  of  Louis  of  France.  But  that 
which  brands  this  administration  with  the  deepest  in- 
famy, is  a secret  compact  made  with  Louis  XIV., 
king  of  France,  in  1670.  Louis  coveted  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Netherlands,  and  sent  an  army  to  invade  its 
territory.  To  preserve  the  balance  of  power  thus  en- 
dangered, England,  Holland,  and  Sweden  formed  the 
"Triple  Alliance.”  While  professing  to  enter  heartily 
into  this  Alliance,  Charles  was  busily  negotiating  a 
secret  treaty  with  Louis.  For  an  annual  pension  of 
£200,000,  he  agreed  to  withdraw  from  the  Alliance, 
assist  Louis’  scheme  of  conquest  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  adopt  the  Catholic  religion.  It  was  stipulated 
that  he  should  announce  his  change  of  religion  as  soon 
as  it  was  prudent,  and  that  Louis  should  lend  him  a 
French  army  in  case  of  revolution.  Charles  did  an- 
other thing  especially  humiliating  to  the  nation.  Dun- 
kirk, that  had  been  won  from  Spain  by  the  valor  of 
Cromwell,  and  had  become  almost  as  essential  to  Eng- 
lish power,  and  quite  as  essential  to  English  pride  as 

* These  were  Clifford,  Arlington,  Buckingham,  Ashley, and  Lauderdale,  the 
initials  of  whose  names  form  the  word  Cabal,  a word  known  before,  signifying 
a Cabinet.  But  so  corrupt  was  the  Cabal  of  Charles  II.,  the  word  ha9  ever 
since  been  applied  to  cliques  of  political  tricksters. 


CIIAKLES  IT. 


215 


Calais  had  been  a century  before,  was  sold  to  the 
French  king  for  £400,000,  merely  to  pander  to  the 
pleasures  of  a vicious  court.  Agreeably  to  the  treaty 
made  with  Louis,  Charles,  in  1G72,  began  the  war  with 
Holland.  On  the  sea,  the  Dutch  navy  gained  several 
victories  over  the  combined  fleets  of  England  and 
France.  The  refusal  of  Parliament  to  vote  supplies, 
and  the  unpopularity  of  the  war,  compelled  Charles  to 
make  peace  in  two  years.  France  continued  hostilities 
till  1G78,  when,  by  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen,  she  rose 
to  the  first  rank  among  the  powers  of  Europe.  Though 
gaining  many  advantages  during  the  war,  she  failed  to 
conquer  the  brave  little  Republic. 

Declaration  of  Indulgence.  Just  before  the  begin- 
ning of  the  war,  Charles  had  issued  a Declaration  of 
Indulgence,  establishing  the  principle  of  religious  tol- 
eration to  all  sects.  This  Declaration  gave  instant 
liberty  to  thousands  of  Puritans,  who,  for  many  years, 
had  pined  in  English  dungeons.  Bunyan  left  the  cell 
he  had  occupied  for  twelve  years  in  Bedford  jail,  and 
where  he  had  composed  that  most  wonderful  allegory 
in  the  English  tongue,  Pilgrim’s  Progress.  Twelve 
thousand  Quakers  alone  were  set  at  liberty  by  this 
edict.  There  was  general  distrust  as  to  the  motives  of 
the  king  in  issuing  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence.  It 
was  believed  to  be  the  initiative  in  a scheme  to  restore 
Catholics  to  office,  and  Catholicism  to  England.  A 
persistent  refusal  of  Parliament  to  vote  supplies  com- 
pelled the  king  to  withdraw  it. 

The  Test  Act.  Parliament  quickly  followed  up  its 
advantage  by  passing  the  Test  Act,  requiring  all  offi- 
cers, civil  and  military,  to  take  the  Oath  of  Supremacy. 


216 


CHARLES  II. 


This  Oath  contained  a denial  of  the  peculiar  tenets  of 
Romanism,  and  an  affirmation  of  those  of  the  estab- 
lished church.  The  numerous  resignations  that  fol- 
lowed showed  to  what  an  extent  Catholics  had  already 
been  brought  into  office,  and  confirmed  previous  suspic- 
ions of  the  Catholic  tendencies  of  the  king.  James, 
Duke  of  York,  the  brother  of  the  king  and  Lord  High 
Admiral,  an  acknowledged  Catholic,  was  forced  to 
retire  from  the  navy. 

The  Popish  Plot.  There  were  wide-spread  fear  and 
distrust.  Whispers  of  Catholic  plots  filled  the  air. 
At  this  moment,  when  the  public  mind  was  excited  with 
apprehension  and  ready  to  credit  any  tale  however 
wild,  one  Titus  Oates  came  forward,  in  1678,  with 
revelations  of  a Popish  plot  to  murder  the  king  and 
all  the  Protestants  in  England.  It  was  like  a spark 
in  a powder-magazine.  All  England  was  thrown  into 
a phrensy  of  excitement.  The  train-bands  patrolled 
the  streets  of  London.  The  Catholics,  to  the  number 
of  thirty  thousand,  were  ordered  to  leave  the  city. 
They  were  excluded  by  statute  from  Parliament,  and. 
for  a century  and  a half,  were  debarred  from  member- 
ship in  either  house.  Fresh  testimony  of  the  coming 
of  a Catholic  army  caused  a fresh  panic,  and  every 
Catholic  in  the  kingdom  was  disarmed.  Trials,  con- 
victions, and  executions  followed  each  other  with  inde- 
cent haste.  The  most  eminent  victim  was  the  venera- 
ble Lord  Stafford , who  was  guilty  of  no  offence , and 
was  offered  up  to  satisfy  the  maddened  popular  thirst 
for  Catholic  blood. 

A bill  to  deprive  James  of  the  right  of  succession 
passed  the  House  of  Commons,  but  was  defeated  in  the 


CHARLES  II. 


217 


House  of  Lords.  The  discovery  of  a letter  to  Louis, 
written  by  the  Earl  of  Danby,  who  had  become  Prime 
Minister  after  the  fall  of  the  Cabal,  soliciting  money, 
and  exposing  the  dependence  of  Charles  on  the  French 
king,  gave  an  air  of  reality  to  the  revelations  of  Oates, 
and  fanned  still  more  the  popular  phrensy.  Just  at 
this  moment  it  was  discovered  that  the  whole  story  of 
the  "Popish  Plot”  was  a pure  fabrication. 

The  Rye  House  Plot.  A real  Protestant  plot  chiefly 
to  secure  the  exclusion  of  James  from  the  succession, 
came  to  light,  later  in  the  reign,  implicating  men  of 
high  rank,  among  whom  were  Lord  Russell  and  Alger- 
non Sidney.  A few  reckless  men  of  the  same  party 
formed  another  scheme  to  assassinate  the  king  and  his 
brother  as  they  rode  past  a place  called  the  Rye 
House.  The  two  plots  were  ingeniously  made  to  ap- 
pear as  one,  by  the  lawyers  of  the  Crown,  sealing  the 
doom  of  the  high-born  conspirators,  who  speedily  per- 
ished on  the  scaffold. 

The  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  A.B.  1679,  In  this  reign  the 
Habeas  Corpus  Act,  the  third  great  statute  advancing 
constitutional  liberty,  was  passed*  It  was  specially 
designed  to  secure  the  personal  liberty  of  the  subject, 
forbidding  his  detention  in  prison  without  cause  duly 
shown  before  a legal  tribunal.  Although  the  principle 
established  by  this  Act  had  been  embodied  in  one  of 
the  leading  sections  of  the  Great  Charter,  the  arbitrary 
wills  of  kings  and  the  ingenuity  of  ministers  had 
hitherto  rendered  it  entirely  inoperative.  The  freedom 
of  the  press  was  also  secured  in  this  reign.  This  was 
accomplished  by  a refusal  of  Parliament  to  renew  the 
license  law,  by  which  a supervision  of  the  press  had 


218 


CHARLES  II. 


been  maintained.  It  was  in  this  reign  that  Milton, 
deprived  of  the  office  he  had  held  under  Cromwell, 
poor,  old,  and  blind,  achieved  that  greatest  triumph 
of  his  life,  Paradise  Lost. 

The  Merry  Monarch.  With  all  nis  faults,  Charles 
was  an  easy,  good-natured  king,  going  quietly  along 
in  the  path  of  his  pleasures,  even  when  the  most  excit- 
ing events  were  occurring  around  him.  His  excessive 
good  nature  has  given  him  in  history,  the  title  of 
"Merry  Monarch.”  The  various  plots,  real  and  pre- 
tended, had  brought  a reaction  in  the  public  mind  in 
favor  of  the  king.  While  the  latter  avoided  an  open 
or  defiant  disregard  of  the  laws,  he  went  deliberately 
to  work  to  make  his  government  absolute,  inaugurat- 
ing what  has  been  termed  the  second  Stuart , tyranny. 
The  Test  Act  excluding  Catholics  from  office  was 
quietly  ignored,  and  James  was  restored  to  his  former 
position  as  Lord  High  Admiral.  Although  making  no 
public  avowal  of  his  adoption  of  the  Catholic  faith, 
Charles  desired  the  ministrations  of  a Catholic  priest 
in  his  dying  moments. 

James  II.,  1685  to  1689  — 4 years.  Stuart. 

The  Second  Stuart  Tyranny.  During  the  preceding 
reign,  James,  Duke  of  York,  had  gained  considerable 
credit  as  commander  of  the  navy.  All  efforts  to 
exclude  him  from  the  throne  on  account  of  his  pro- 
nounced devotion  to  the  Papacy  had  failed,  and  now, 
at  the  death  of  Charles  without  heirs,  he  assumed  the 
crown  without  opposition, under  the  title  of  James  II. 
Much  was  hoped  from  the  supposed  manliness  of  his 
character,  and  still  more  from  the  solemn  avowal  made 


JAMES  II. 


219 


in  the  presence  of  his  council,  at  its  first  meeting  after 
the  death  of  Charles,  to  support  and  defend  the  estab- 
lished church,  and  execute  the  laws  of  the  realm.  But 
the  high  expectations  that  preceded  the  coronation 
were  only  equaled  by  the  disappointment  that  followed 
it.  Enthusiasm  soon  gave  place  to  gloom,  and  gloom 
to  horror.  James  was  not  a mere  lover  of  ease  and 
pleasure  like  Charles,  but  he  soon  showed  that  he  was 
more  indifferent  to  public  sentiment,  more  defiant  of 
the  law,  and  more  malignant  towards  men  of  other 
views.  Within  three  days  after  his  accession,  and 
against  the  advice  of  his  council,  he  levied  customs  with- 
out the  consent  of  Parliament.  The  first  elections  were 
carried  by  fraud  and  violence  in  the  interests  of  the 
king.  Parliament,  being  subservient  to  his  will,  ap- 
proved the  levy,  and  voted  the  king  a life  income  of 
£2,000,000.  Its  action  on  the  subject  of  religion  was 
moulded  to  suit  the  royal  pleasure.  Though  silent  on 
the  subject  in  England,  the  law^s  against  the  Scotch 
Covenanters  were  made  more  severe  and  executed  more 
rigorously  than  ever  before.  An  ill-organized  attempt 
of  the  Duke  of  Argyle  to  rouse  the  clans  to  resistance 
quickly  ended  in  the  death  of  the  Duke  and  the  scat- 
tering of  the  clans. 

The  Rebellion  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth.  An  at- 
tempt, equally  rash,  on  the  part  of  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth,in  the  wrest,  having  for  its  object  the  overthrow  of 
James,  and  his  own  assumption  of  royal  power,  was 
even  more  disastrous  in  its  results.  The  royal  army 
defeated  the  rebels  at  Sedgemoor,  July  6,  1G85.  The 
polished  but  cowardly  Monmouth,  when  b might  a 
prisoner  into  the  presence  of  the  angry  king,  pros- 


220. 


JAMES  II. 


trated  himself  at  his  feet,  which  he  wet  with  his  tears, 
while  piteously  begging  for  his  life.  He  was  quickly 
sent  to  the  block,  and  his  deluded  followers  were  hunted 
-down  like  wild  beasts.  These  unfortunate  attempts 
only  strengthened  the  power  of  the  king,  for  they 
enkindled  a new  feeling  of  loyalty  in  the  hearts  of  the 
people.  They  furnished,  too,  a plausible  excuse  for 
a large  increase  of  the  army.  The  most  severe 
measures  were  adopted  against  the  rebels. 

The  English  Reign  of  Terror.  A Circuit  Court  was 
organized  in  the  rebellious  counties,  whose  action  was 
better  suited  to  the  darkest  of  the  Dark  Ages,  than  to 
the  enlightenment  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Chief 
Justice  Jeffries  presided.  We  know  not  from  which 
the  mind  recoils  with  deepest  horror,  the  merciless 
judgments  of  this  fiend  in  human  form  against  the  inno- 
cent and  the  guilty,  or  his  heartless  levity  in  the  midst  of 
the  sufferings  he  inflicted.  We  search,  in  vain,  the  pages 
of  history  for  a name  that  has  descended  to  a more 
infamous  immortality  than  has  that  of  Jeffries.  His 
Court  has  been  variously  characterized,  in  history,  as 
" Jeffries'  Campaign,”  the  "Bloody  Assize,”  and  the 
"English  Reign  of  Terror.”  Its  first  victim  was  a wo- 
man  seventy  years  of  age,  Alice  Lisle,  widow  of  one 
of  the  members  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice.  She 
was  beheaded  for  giving  food  and  lodging  to  a flying 
rebel.  Another  woman,  Elizabeth  Gaunt,  was  burned 
for  the  same  offence,  while  others  were  scourged  from 
town  to  town.  One  Captain  Kirke,  at  the  head  of 
a company  of  troopers  as  inhuman  as  himself,  and 
ironically  called  " Kirke’s  lambs,”  was  charged  with 
the  apprehension  and  execution  of  the  rebels.  It  is 


JAMES  II. 


221 


said  that  they  were  accustomed,  for  entertainment  at 
their  carousals,  to  have  their  prisoners  hung  on  lofty 
gibbets  in  front  of  their  windows,  and  the  drums  beat, 
to  furnish  music  to  the  dance  of  the  quivering  bodies. 
To  an  American  there  is  no  parallel  to  this,  except  in 
the  cruelties  of  the  savage  who  dances  in  glee  around 
his  tortured  victim.  As  in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  the 
heads  and  limbs  of  the  dead  were  posted  in  public 
places  to  strike  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  inhabi- 
tants.* 

It  will  hardly  be  credited  that  the  queen  herself,  and 
her  maids  of  honor,  made  merchandise  of  freeborn 
English  subjects,  begging  the  lives  of  the  condemned 
that  they  might  sell  them  into  slavery  in  the  West 
Indies.  Even  the  innocent  and  thoughtless  girls  who 
had  presented  to  Monmouth  an  embroidered  banner,  as 
he  entered  their  native  town  of  Taunton,  were  only 
saved  from  a like  fate  by  the  payment  of  £2,000,  to 
the  maids  of  honor.  Jeffries  returned  to  London, 
enriched  with  the  pardons  he  had  sold,  and  with  the 
boast  on  his  lips,  that  "he  had  hanged  more  for  high 
treason  than  all  the  judges  of  England  since  William 

* Knight,  in  his  most  interesting  work,  gives  the  following  graphic  picture  of 
the  barbarities  practiced  by  a Chief  Justice  of  England,  and  sanctioned  by 
its  king,  less  than  two  hundred  years  ago.  “ The  pitchy  cauldron  was 
constantly  boiling  in  the  Assize  towns  to  preserve  the  heads  and  limbs  irom 
corruption  that  were  to  be  distributed  through  the  beautiful  Western  Country. 
As  the  leaves  were  dropping  in  that  Autumn  of  1683,  the  great  oak  of  many  a 
village  green  was  decorated  with  a mangled  quarter.  On  every  tower  of  the 
Somersetshire  churches  a ghastly  head  looked  down  upon  those  who  gathered 
together  for  the  worship  of  the  God  of  love.  The  directing  post  for  the 
traveller  was  elevated  into  a gibbet.  The  laborer,  returning  home  beneath  the 
harvest-moon,  hurried  past  the  body  suspended  in  its  creaking  gimmaces 
(chains).  The  eloquent  historian  of  this  reign  of  terror  has  attested  from  his 
own  childish  recollections  that  ‘ within  the  last  forty  years,  peasants  in  some 
districts  well  knew  the  accursed  spots  and  passed  them  unwillingly  after 
sunset.* n 


222 


JAMES  II. 


the  Conqueror,”  and  was  rewarded  by  his  appreciating 
master  with  the  Great  Seal. 

Attempt  to  Restore  Catholicism  to  England.  Flush- 
ed with  success  in  crushing  the  rebellion,  James  next 
moved  boldly  towards  the  .goal  he  had  in  view,  the 
restoration  of  Catholicism  to  England.  Catholics  were 
put  at  the  head  of  the  army,  now  numbering  20,000 
men,  also  of  the  navy,  the  council,  and  the  courts. 
They  filled  the  civil  offices  and  swarmed  about  the 
court.  Monks  of  all  orders,  dressed  in  their  peculiar 
garb,  ostentatiously  paraded  the  streets,  and  even  the 
Jesuits  were  allowed  to  establish  a school  in  the  Savoy. 
Parliament,  hitherto  the  tool  of  the  king,  alarmed  at  his 
evident  purpose,  and  at  the  boldness  with  which  he 
moved  to  its  execution,  refused  a vote  of  supplies,  and 
was  instantly  prorogued.  But  the  opposition  of  Par- 
liament and  the  discontent  of  the  people  only  increased 
the  audacity  of  the  king.  He  formed  an  Ecclesiastical 
Court  of  seven  members  with  Jeffries  at  the  head, 
commissioned  to  exercise  complete  control  over  mat- 
ters of  religion.  It  was  the  " High  Commission  ” 
revived.  The  Earl  of  Perth,  the  inventor  of  the  steel 
thumb-screw,  one  of  James’s  favorite  instruments  of 
torture  and  conversion,  was  appointed  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Scotland,  and  the  Earl  of  Tyrconnel,  equally 
bigoted  and  intolerant,  to  that  of  Ireland.  A royal 
proclamation,  forbidding  ministers  to  preach  on  dis- 
puted subjects,  was  answered  by  stirring  appeals  from 
almost  every  pulpit,  while  the  public  press  teemed 
with  the  indignant  protests  of  the  people.  James  next 
sought  to  place  the  great  institutions  of  learning  under 
Catholic  control.  He  tried  to  force  upon  one  of  the 


JAMES  II. 


223 


Oxford  Colleges  a Catholic  head.  The  Fellows  had 
elected  one  of  their  own  number,  declining  to  accept 
the  nominee  of  the  king.  James  summoned  them  to 
his  presence.  " I am  your  king,  I will  be  obeyed, ” 
said  lie  ! " Go  to  your  chapel  this  instant,  and  elect 

the  Bishop  ! Let  those  who  refuse  look  to  it,  for  they 
shall  feel  the  whole  weight  of  my  hand  ! ” 

The  Seven  Bishops.  All  England  was  now  in  a fer- 
ment; but  James,  possessed  with  the  insane  obstinacy 
of  his  race,  and  deaf  to  the  entreaties  of  his  Catholic 
friends,  and  even  of  the  pope  who  counseled  modera- 
tion, pressed  swiftly  forward  to  his  doom.  He  issued 
a ''Declaration  of  Indulgence,”  similar  to  that  of  his 
brother,  Charles  II.,  abolishing  all  religious  tests  for 
office  and  all  penal  laws  against  non-conformists. 
This  was  ordered  to  be  read  to  every  congregation  in 
the  land.  Only  two  hundred  out  of  ten  thousand 
clergymen  obeyed.  A protest  signed  by  seven  bishops 
was  presented  to  the  king.  "It  is  a standard  of 
rebellion,”  said  James,  as  he  sent  the  bishops  to  the 
Tower.  They  were  speedily  brought  before  the  King’s 
Bench  on  a charge  of  seditious  libel.  Being  acquitted 
by  the  jury  after  a day’s  trial,  they  were  released 
amidst  the  wildest  acclamations  of  the  people.  That 
night,  June  30th,  1688,  was  a memorable  one  in  Lon- 
don. The  whole  city  was  illuminated  in  honor  of  the 
seven  bishops,  bonfires  blazed  in  every  street,  and 
rockets  lit  up  the  heavens.  To  over-awe  the  city, 
James  had  established  a camp  at  Hounslow,  midway 
between  Windsor  and  Whitehall.  He  was  present  with 
the  army  when  the  news  of  the  acquittal  arrived,  but 
left  at  once  for  London.  As  he  rode  away  he  heard 


224 


JAMES  II. 


a great  shouting  behind  him.  " What  is  that?”  asked  the 
startled  king.  " It  is  nothing  but  the  soldiers  who  are 
glad  that  the  bishops  are  acquitted,”  was  the  reply. 
"Do  you  call  that  nothing?”  rejoined  the  king,  now  bit- 
terly conscious  that  he  had  lost  the  sympathy  of  the  sol- 
diers who  were  his  only  hope.  Not  daunted  as  yet,  he 
dispatched  the  infected  regiments  to  distant  stations, 
replacing  them  with  soldiers  drawn  chiefly  from  the 
garrisons  of  Scotland  and  Ireland.  He  assembled  an 
army  of  forty  thousand  men,  but  he  little  dreamed  that 
many  of  its  officers  were  already  in  a league  against 
him.  Among  these  officers  was  Lord  Churchill,  after- 
wards, as  Duke  of  Marlborough,  to  become  the  most 
famous  general  of  his  times. 

William  of  Orange  Invited  to  Take  the  English 
Crown.  The  very  day  the  bishops  were  acquitted, 
seven  leading  nobles  sent  a secret  invitation  to  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  who  had  married  James’s  eldest 
daughter,  to  come  to  England  with  an  army  and  take  the 
crown,  assuring  him  of  abundant  support.  William 
had  seen  King  James  become  the  pensioner  of  Louis 
of  France,  his  most  inveterate  enemy.  He  had 
watched  his  persistent  efforts  to  restore  Komanism 
to  England.  He  had  witnessed,  with  undisguised  re- 
sentment, his  evident  purpose  to  transform  Ireland  into 
a Catholic  state,  to  become  (according  to  the  French 
ambassador)  an  asylum  for  English  Catholics,  and  a 
possible  refuge  for  himself,  — a scheme  that  threatened 
the  integrity  of  the  empire  of  which  William’s  wife  was 
the  prospective  heir.  His  counsels  and  his  protests  had 
been  alike  unheeded.  Finally,  when  it  was  announced 
that  the  queen  had  given  birth  to  a son,  William 


JAMES  II. 


225 


shared  the  general  belief,  that  it  was  a supposititious 
child,  to  be  foisted  upon  England,  in  the  interests  of 
the  Papacy.  His  purpose  was  formed,  and  the  invita- 
tion of  the  English  nobles  accepted.  James  and  Louis 
were  in  perfect  accord.  When  William  began  to  gather 
ships  and  soldiers  for  the  English  campaign,  Louis 
schemed  to  detain  him  on  the  continent. 

By  the  greatest  mistake  of  his  life,  as  some  historians 
term  it,  Louis  hurled  his  forces  against  Germany  in- 
stead of  Holland,  and  the  latter  country  being,  for  the 
present,  safe,  William  was  free  to  pursue  his  English 
campaign.  With  a fleet  of  five  hundred  ships,  and  an 
army  of  fourteen  thousand  men,  he  sailed  from  the 
Scheldt,  and  landed  at  Torbay,  on  the  southern  coast, 
the  5th  of  November,  1688.  His  army  took  up  its 
line  of  march  for  the  interior,  receiving  at  first  but  few 
additions.  But  soon  powerful  nobles  began  to  arrive, 
and  important  towns  to  give  in  their  adhesion. 

The  Flight  of  James  to  France.  James  struggled 
with  the  energy  of  despair  to  meet  the  crisis.  He  sought 
to  turn  the  current  of  public  opinion  by  correcting 
abuses  and  making  concessions,  and  even  went  franti- 
cally about  touching  for  the  king’s  evil,  but  all  to  no 
purpose.  The  people  were  wholly  alienated  from  their 
king.  The  army  of  forty  thousand  which  he  had 
gathered  at  Salisbury,  retreated,  in  panic,  before  the 
banners  of  Orange,  and  began  to  break  up.  Its 
officers  went  over  to  William,  or  retired  entirely  from 
the  contest.  James  was  utterly  deserted.  " God  help 
me,  for  my  own  children  have  forsaken  me,”  said  the 
wretched  kins:,  when  he  learned  that  his  daughter  Anne 
had  gone  over  to  his  enemies.  Tossing  the  Great  Seal 


226 


JAMES  II. 


into  the  Thames,  he  quickly  followed  his  wife  and  child 
in  their  flight  to  France,  without  striking  a blow  for  his 
kingdom  and  crown. 

The  Glorious  Revolution  Peacefully  Accomplished. 

The  House  of  Peers  held  a session,  and  requested 
William  to  call  a convention  of  the  people  and  to 
assume,  in  the  meantime,  the  provisional  government 
of  England.  The  convention  assembled  in  January, 
1689^  and  declared  Mary,  eldest  daughter  of  James 
II.,  William’s  wife,  to  be  the  lawful  heir  to  the  vacant 
throne.  But  Mary  declined  to  accept  royal  honors  that 
were  not  shared  by  her  husband,  and  the  convention 
then  invited  William  and  Mary  to  become  joint  sov- 
ereigns of  England,  with  the  actual  administration  of 
the  government  vested  in  the  former.  This  proposition 
was  accepted.  Having  signed  a Declaration  of  Rights, 
re-atErming  the  ancient  liberties  of  the  English  people, 
William  and  Mary  received  their  crowns,  and  "The 
Glorious  Revolution”  was  accomplished.  Well  may 
a revolution  be  called  glorious,  that,  without  the  shed- 
ding of  a drop  of  blood,  achieved  results  so  grand. 
From  that  day  to  this  we  hear  no  more  of  punishment  in 
England  except  for  crime.  Englishmen  no  longer  pine 
in  foul  dungeons,  or  die  in  God’s  free  air  at  the  cruel 
stake,  for  their  fidelity  to  their  convictions.  Instru- 
ments of  torture  now  exist  only  in  Museums,  as  relics 
of  a by -gone  age,  exciting  the  wonder  of  the  beholder, 
that  any  age,  and  above  all,  any  Christian  age,  could 
have  been  so  barbarous.  The  interval  of  two  months 
between  the  flight  of  James  and  the  coronation  of  the 
new  sovereigns  is  known  as  the  Interregnum. 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY. 


227 


William  III.,  1689  to  1702  — 13  Years.  Nassau. 
Mary  II.,  1689  to  1694  — 6 Years.  Stuart. 

The  Grand  Alliance.  The  elevation  of  William  to 
the  English  throne  was  a serious  blow  to  Louis,  King 
of  France.  Besides  enabling  William  to  bring  into 
the  contest  with  Louis  the  fleets  and  armies  of 
England,  it  largely  increased  his  power  and  influence 
on  the  continent.  He  became  at  once  the  acknowl- 
edged head  of  the  opposition  to  French  aggression. 
The  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,*  in  1685,  had 
enabled  William  to  bring  about  a coalition  of  the  Protes- 
tant princes  of  Germany.  The  recent  and  wanton 
ravages  of  the  French  armies  in  the  Palatinate  now 
enabled  him  to  bring  into  the  alliance  the  Catholic 
princes  also.j-  France,  single-handed,  was  compelled 
to  face  the  combined  power  of  England,  Holland,  Ger- 
many, and  Spain.  An  English  brigade  was  sent  to  the 
aid  of  the  allies,  but  William  himself  was  detained  in 
England  by  the  unsettled  condition  of  the  government, 

* Louis  XIV.  had  assumed  to  be  the  champion  of  the  Papacy,  and  had  defied 
the  whole  Protestant  world  by  the  revocation,  in  1G85,  of  the  Edict  of  Nante3, 
under  which,  since  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  the  French  Huguenots  had  enjoyed 
immunity  from  persecution.  At  once  there  was  inaugurated  perhaps  the  most 
dreadful  persecution  any  people  ever  suffered  for  conscience’  sake.  A cry  of 
anguish  went  up  from  every  town  and  hamlet  in  France,  as  the  helpless,  tor- 
tured Protestants  died  in  the  maintenance  of  their  faith.  Huguenots  crowded 
the  prisons,  and  went  in  gangs  to  the  galleys.  Although  thousands  of  fugitives 
were  turned  back  from  the  frontiers  of  France,  it  is  computed  that  half  a mil- 
lion of  the  most  peaceable  and  industrious  of  her  population  fled  from  her 
borders.  Her  work  shops  were  closed,  and  her  revenues  reduced,  while  the 
arts  and  industries,  that  had  been  the  chief  source  of  her  prosperity,  were 
carried  to  foreign  countries. 

f The  “Treaty  of  Westphalia,”  terminating  the  “Thirty  Years’  War,”  in  1648, 
had  left  Germany,  already  divided  by  the  Reformation,  a loose  confedera- 
tion of  petty,  independent  states,  united  in  times  of  common  danger  by  a 
sense  of  individual  weakness,  but  separated,  in  times  of  peace,  by  difference® 
in  religion. 


228 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY. 


and  especially  by  the  critical  state  of  affairs  in  Ireland. 

Rebellion  in  Ireland.  Tyreonnel  had  accomplished 
his  mission  in  that  country.  It  had  been  brought  com- 
pletely  under  Catholic  rule.  The  half-savage  natives 
were  everywhere  let  loose  upon  Englishmen  and 
Protestants.  In  the  south,  the  panic-stricken  people, 
pursued  with  tire  and  sword,  abandoned  their  homes 
and  fled  from  the  country.  In  the  north,  the  hunted 
Protestants  gathered  within  the  walls  of  Enniskillen 
and  Londonderry.  Backed  by  fifty  thousand  Irish 
soldiers,  Tyreonnel  boldly  raised  the  standard  of  the 
Stuarts.  James  himself  arrived  in  Ireland  with  a fleet 
and  army  furnished  by  the  French  king.  Londonderry 
sustained  a siege  of  one  hundred  and  five  days,  when  an 
English  ship  broke  through  the  boom  stretched  across 
the  river  Foyle,  and  brought  relief  to  the  starving 
inhabitants.  The  same  day  a sally  was  made  by  the 
garrison  of  Enniskillen  and  the  besiegers  beaten  off. 

Battle  of  the  Boyne.  Shortly  after  this,  William 
landed  at  Carrickfergus  with  an  ample  force,  and  took 
up  his  line  of  march  for  Dublin.  He  found  the  army 
of  James  strongly  posted  behind  the  river  Boyne. 
Crossing  this  river  on  the  12th  of  July,  1690,  in  the 
face  of  the  foe,  William  gained  a complete  victory, 
destroying  James’s  last  hope  of  the  recovery  of  his 
kingdom.  The  anniversary  of  this  battle  is  stiU 
observed  by  the  Orangemen,  a society  of  Protest- 
ant Irish.  James  fled  to  Dublin  and  embarked  for 
France.  William,  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
capture  Limerick,  leaving  the  further  prosecution  of 
the  war  to  his  deputies,  returned  to  England,  and 
soon  joined  his  allies  on  the  continent,  over  whom 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY. 


229 


the  French  armies  had  gained  victory  after  victory. 

Peace  of  Ryswick.  Flushed  with  success,  Louis  had 
been  tempted,  just  after  William  left  for  Ireland, 
to  prepare  an  expedition  for  the  invasion  of  England. 
But  his  fleet  was  completely  overthrown,  off  Cape  La 
Hogue,  by  a Dutch  and  English  squadron,  and  all 
danger  of  invasion  passed  away.  The  victory  of  La 
Hogue,  and  the  presence  of  William  on  the  conti- 
nent, inspired  the  allied  armies  with  fresh  courage. 
Although  the  war  lingered  for  several  years  with  vary- 
ing success,  Louis,  conscious,  at  last,  that  he  had 
completely  exhausted  the  resources  of  his  people,  and, 
in  the  language  of  Fenelon,  "had  made  France  a vast 
hospital,”  consented,  in  1697,  to  the  unfavorable  Treaty 
of  Ryswick.  He  surrendered  all  his  conquests  except 
Alsace,  recognized  William  as  king  of  England,  and 
abandoned  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts.  This  war,  under 
the  name  of  "King  William’s  War,”  had  spread  to  the 
English  and  French  colonies  in  America.  A feeble 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  English  to  take  Quebec,  and 
murderous  raids  among  the  New  England  settlements 
by  hostile  Indians,  were  the  only  events  worthy  of 
mention. 

The  Bill  of  Rights,  A.  D.  1689.  Although  associated 
with  William  in  the  government,  Mary  had  nothing 
to  do  with  its  administration.  She  died  in  1694, 
universally  esteemed  for  her  many  virtues.  William 
survived  her  seven  years.  This  reign  was  of  great 
political  importance  to  England.  William’s  coming 
had  been  preceded  by  a declaration  of  his  purpose  to 
uphold  the  liberties  of  the  country.  During  the  first 
year  he  gave  his  signature  to  the  Bill  of  Rights. 


230 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY. 


second,  in  impoitance,  only  to  the  Great  Charter 
itself.  This  Bill  made  standing  armies  in  times  of 
peace,  and  levies  of  money  without  consent  of  Parlia- 
ment, unlawful;  guaranteed  the  right  of  petition,  the 
frequent  assembling  of  Parliament,  and  freedom  of 
debate;  and  forbade  interference  with  the  laws  on  the 
part  of  king. 

Other  statutes,  approved  by  William,  established  re 
ligious  toleration  and  the  freedom  of  the  press;  secured 
to  persons  accused  of  crime  the  right  of  counsel  and  a 
copy  of  the  charges;  and  to  those  condemned,  protec- 
tion from  excessive  fines  and  cruel  and  unusual  punish- 
ments. By  the  Triennial  Bill,  no  Parliament  could  sit 
more  than  three  years.  The  Act  of  Settlement 
excluded  Catholics  forever  from  the  throne,  making 
Anne,  second  daughter  of  James,  the  prospective 
heir,  and,  at  her  death  without  heirs,  Princess  Sophia, 
who  had  married  the  Elector  of  Hanover. 

The  Constitution  of  England.  William’s  reign 
marks  an  era  in  constitutional  government  in  England, 
not  alone  because  it  gave  birth  to  new  laws  in  the 
interests  of  liberty,  but  because  it  gave  vitality  to 
laws  that  were  old.  Before  William’s  time  there  were 
charters  and  statutes  enough,  could  they  have  been 
executed,  to  have  made  the  English  people  free;  but 
neither  was  public  sentiment  so  educated  and  expressed, 
nor  the  royal  prerogative  so  limited  and  defined,  as  to 
make  it  impossible  for  a tyrant  still  to  rule.  During 
William’s  reign  the  rights  of  the  people  and  the  prerog- 
atives of  the  crown  were  clearly  defined.  Now  sov- 
ereign and  subject  alike  bow  before  the  majesty  of  the 
law. 


WILLIAM  AXD  MARY. 


231 


One  principle  was  established  in  the  reign  of  William 
that  has  made  popular  government  in  England  secure, 
the  principle  that  the  ministers  of  the  Crown  must  be 
in  harmony  with  the  House  of  Commons.  If  in  any 
important  matter,  or  one  in  which  the  opposing  parties 
are  at  issue,  the  House  refuses  by  its  vote  to  sustain  the 
policy  of  the  ministers,  these  ministers  at  once  retire, 
and  their  places  are  filled  by  men  of  the  opposite  party. 
The  House  of  Commons  can,  therefore,  dictate  the 
policy  to  be  pursued  by  the  government,  and  is  the 
chief  ruling  power. 

There  is  a peculiar  and  interesting  fact  in  connection 
with  the  English  Constitution.  It  is  comprehended 
in  no  single  enactment,  nor  in  the  enactments  of  any 
single  reign.  It  is  composed  of  all  the  great  charters 
and  statutes  that  have  been  enacted  from  time  to  time 
since  the  reign  of  John,  with  such  customs  and  prece- 
dents as  have  the  sanction  of  long  usage.  Although  it 
lacks  the  individuality  of  our  own  Constitution,  yet  as 
the  slow  and  steady  growth  of  ages,  as  the  product  of 
the  wisdom  and  patriotism  of  the  best  English  minds, 
standing  as  it  does  the  tests  of  time  and  an  advancing 
civilization,  it  commands  our  reverence  and  our  admira- 
tion. Indeed,  our  own  Constitution  is  but  a collection 
and  epitome  of  the  various  charters  of  freedom  that 
lie  scattered  all  along  the  pathway  of  English  history. 

To  us  the  term  " Mother  Country  ” is  significant,  not 
alone  as  indicating  the  English  origin  of  most  of  our 
people,  and  our  early  colonial  governments,  but  also 
the  English  origin  of  our  liberties  and  our  laws.  Nearly 
all  those  great  principles  of  government  which  we  hold 
so  dear  were  conceived  in  English  hearts  and  wrought 


232 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY. 


out  by  English  hands.  The  inalienable  rights  of  man, 
life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness,  dawned  in 
Magna  Charta  long  before  they  shone  full-orbed  in  the 
Declaration  of  Independence. 

The  Second  Grand  Alliance.  The  Peace  of  Ryswick 
had  oeen  hastened  by  the  consciousness  on  the  part  of 
the  principal  actors,  that  the  settlement  of  a new  ques- 
tion of  vital  importance  to  the  powers  of  Europe  was 
soon  to  be  forced  upon  them,  the  question  of  the  succes- 
sion to  the  Spanish  throne.  The  death  of  the  present 
king,  Charles  II.,  was  near  at  hand.  With  him  would 
end  the  Austrian  line  of  Bourbon  princes,  that  had  ruled 
over  Spain  for  two  hundred  years.  The  leading 
powers,  including  France,  determined  on  a partition 
of  the  Spanish  empire  at  the  death  of  Charles,  agree- 
ing to  recognize  Archduke  Charles  of  Austria,  as  heir 
presumptive  to  the  Spanish  throne.  King  Charles, 
indignant  at  the  proposed  partition,  bequeathed  his 
whole  empire  to  Philip  of  Anjou,  grandson  of  Louis 
XIV.  Charles  died  in  1700,  and  Philip  unopposed  took 
possession  of  his  inheritance.  The  exultant  Louis, 
disregarding  the  treaty  of  partition  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  signers,  accepted  the  will  of  Charles. 
Acting  in  the  name  of  his  grandson,  he  garrisoned 
the  Spanish  Netherlands  with  French  troops,  and 
returned  a haughty  refusal  to  William’s  demand  for 
their  withdrawal.  England  and  Holland  prepared  for 
war.  At  this  juncture,  James  II.  died  in  France,  and 
Louis  publicly  acknowledged  the  son  of  James  as  King 
of  England,  under  the  title  of  James  III.  England 
had  never  been  in  greater  peril  from  a foreign  power 
since  the  days  of  the  Armada,  for  the  elevation  of 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY. 


233 


Philip  hud  placed  the  Spanish  empire  on  the  side’ of 
England’s  foes.  " The  Pyrenees  exist  no  longer”, said 
Louis  as  his  grandson  went  to  take  the  Spanish  crown. 
The  soul  of  William  rose  with  the  emergency.  With 
matchless  skill  and  energy  he  brought  to  a successful 
issue  the  last  great  work  of  his  life,  the  formation  of 
a Grand  Alliance  embracing  England,  Holland,  Ger- 
many, Sweden,  and  Denmark,  pledged  to  oppose  the 
ambitious  schemes  of  the  French  monarch,  and  to  sup- 
port the  claims  of  Archduke  Charles  of  Austria  to 
the  Spanish  throne. 

Death  and  Character  of  William.  But  William  did 
not  live  to  prosecute  the  war  he  had  planned.  An 
accident,  caused  by  the  stumbling  of  his  horse  as  he 
rode  to  Hampton  Court,  terminated  fatally  on  the 
8th  of  March,  1702.  He  had  long  been  slowly  sink- 
ing under  the  ravages  of  disease.  Although  his  face 
was  marked  with  the  lines  of  suffering,  and  his  frail 
form  bowed  with  care,  his  eagle  eye  and  firmly  com- 
pressed lips  showed  to  the  last  the  fiery  soul  within. 
Trained  in  the  school  of  adversity  (for  the  House  of 
Orange  had  lain  prostrate  during  his  early  youth),  he 
had  learned  to  be  watchful  of  public  events,  and  re- 
served in  the  expression  of  his  opinions.  His  family 
being  restored  to  power  just  as  he  was  entering  man- 
hood, William  brought  to  the  public  service  wisdom 
and  prudence  beyond  his  years.  His  genius  was  best 
displayed  in  great  emergencies.  He  was  never  so  cool 
as  in  the  midst  of  the  conflict,  and  never  so  dangerous 
as  after  a defeat.  Owing  to  his  silent,  unsocial  habits, 
and  his  manifest  partiality  for  his  own  countrymen, 
he  was  personally  unpopular  during  his  lifetime.  But 


234 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY. 


his  patience,  constancy,  and  patriotism,  and,  above  all, 
the  wisdom  of  his  far-seeing  policy,  securing  to  the 
English  people  prosperity  at  home,  and  an  influence 
abroad  unknown  since  the  times  of  Cromwell,  have 
made  William  of  Orange  an  honored  name  in  every 
English  household.  At  William’s  death  Anne  was 
immediately  proclaimed  Queen  of  England,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Act  of  Settlement. 

Anne,  1702  to  1714  — 12  Years.  Stuart. 

The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  The  death  of 
William  created  no  little  consternation  among  the 
nations  composing  the  " Grand  Alliance.”  And  conse- 
quently, the  announcement,  made  from  the  throne, 
shortly  after  Anne’s  accession,  that  the  policy  of 
William  would  be  continued  by  the  new  government, 
was  hailed  with  general  delight.  The  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough and  Prince  Eugene  were  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  allied  armies.  The  war,  that  now  arose,  called  in 
Europe,  the  "War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,”  and  in 
America,  " Queen  Anne’s  War,”  lasted  till  the  year 
1713.  During  its  progress  four  great  victories  were 
gained  over  the  French  at  Blenheim,  Ramillies,  Oude- 
narde , and  Maplaquet . F ranee , humbled  and  exhausted , 
was  compelled  to  sue  for  peace.  By  a treaty  signed  at 
Utrecht,  in  1713,  while  Philip  was  recognized  as  King 
of  Spain,  his  possessions  on  the  continent  were  divided 
among  the  allied  powers.  Louis  consented  to  the 
formal  cession  of  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland,  and 
Gibraltar  to  England,  recognized  Anne  as  Queen  of 
England,  and  again  abandoned  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts. 
This  war  had  extended  to  the  French  and  English 


ANNE. 


235 


colonies  in  America,  being  marked  by  the  renewal  of 
Indian  barbarities,  especially  in  Massachusetts.  Plans 
were  in  progress  for  the  sailing  of  a fleet  against 
Quebec,  but  they  were  brought  to  a sudden  termina- 
tion by  the  announcement  of  peace. 

Marlborough.  For  several  years,  party  strife  in 
England  had  been  growing  more  and  more  bitter,  the 
Whigs  favoring,  and  the  Tories  opposing,  the  war.  Its 
long  continuance,  the  frightful  losses  attending  its 
fiercely  contested  battles,  and  the  rapid  increase  of  the 
national  debt,  had  made  it,  towards  the  last,  exceed- 
ingly unpopular.  The  Whig  ministers  were  compelled 
to  yield  their  places  to  Tories.  Marlborough,  who  had 
allied  himself  with  the  Whigs,  lost  favor  with  the  queen, 
who  was  Tory  at  heart,  and,  at  the  close  of  the  war, 
was  dismissed  from  the  public  service,  with  charges  of 
peculation  and  mismanagement.  His  wife,  the  famous 
Duchess  of  Marlborough,  who  had  exercised  almost 
unbounded  influence  over  the  queen  from  the  day  of 
her  accession,  also  fell  into  disfavor,  and  was  dismissed 
from  all  the  offices  which  she  held  about  the  royal  person. 
Marlborough  retired  from  England  in  disgust.  This 
remarkable  man  deserves  a moment’s  notice.  He  was 
handsome  in  person  and  of  polished  address,  skilled  in 
diplomacy,  and,  confessedly,  the  first  general  of  the  age. 
It  is  said  that  he  never  lost  a battle,  nor  failed  in  the 
attempt  to  take  a town,  during  his  whole  military 
career.  His  serenity  under  all  circumstances  was 
something  marvelous.  He  went  as  calmly  into  battle 
as  to  a parade,  passed  unmoved  amidst  the  most  terrible 
scenes  of  carnage  and  suffering,  exhibited  no  fear  at  the 
presence  of  danger,  and  showed  no  elation  even  in  the 


236 


ANNE. 


hour  of  victory.  But  there  was  another  and  a darker 
side  to  his  character.  He  was  guilty  of  habitual  mean- 
ness and  dishonesty,  and  bore  exposure  with  little 
apparent  shame.  He  had  been  a traitor  to  James, 
being  among  the  first  to  join  the  league  against  him,  and 
then  a traitor  to  William,  having  enlisted  warmly  in  a 
scheme  for  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts,  even  after 
the  accession  of  William.  His  master  passion  was  love 
of  money.  He  stooped  to  the  most  unscrupulous 
methods  in  acquiring  it,  and  managed,  while  in  office, 
to  amass  an  immense  fortune.  Marlborough  stands  a 
marked  example  of  mingled  greatness  and  littleness. 

Constitutional  Union  of  England  and  Scotland.  In 
the  midst  of  the  war,  in  the  year  1707,  England  and 
Scotland  were  made,  in  all  respects,  one  kingdom,  their 
Parliaments  being  united,  as  their  crowns  had  been  a 
little  more  than  a century  before.  By  the  Act  of  Union, 
Scotland  was  to  be  placed  on  a perfect  equality  with 
England  in  matters  of  trade,  the  courts  of  Justice  were 
to  remain  unchanged,  and  the  church  of  Scotland  was 
to  be  maintained,  as  already  established  by  law.  Six- 
teen Scotch  Peers  were  admitted  to  the  House  of  Lords, 
and  forty-five  members  to  the  House  of  Commons. 
Although  this  union  was  bitterly  opposed  by  the  Scotch 
people,  it  has  contributed  immensely  to  their  pros- 
perity. Little  fishing  hamlets  have  grown  into  great 
commercial  cities,  manufactures  have  sprung  up  and 
thrived,  and  to-day,  in  some  departments  of  industry, 
Scotland  stands  among  the  foremost  nations.  The 
reign  of  Anne  was  distinguished  for  its  intellectual 
greatness,  contesting  with  that  of  Elizabeth  the  right 


ANNE. 


237 


to  be  called  the  " Augustan  Age.”  It  is  radiant  with 
the  genius  of  such  men  as  Pope,  Steele,  Swift,  and 
Addison. 

Death  of  Good  Queen  Anne.  Queen  Anne  died,  in 
1714,  of  an  attack  of  apoplexy.  Her  people  kindly 
remembered  her  as  "Good  Queen  Anne.”  She  was 
not  attractive  in  person,  and  possessed  but  moderate 
ability.  If,  like  Elizabeth,  she  made  an  unwise  choice 
of  personal  favorites,  and  weakly  surrendered  herself 
to  their  influence,  like  Elizabeth,  too,  she  had  the  good 
sense  to  put  able  men  at  the  head  of  the  government. 
After  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough  (who  was  a whig) 
had  lost  favor  with  the  queen,  the  latter  fell  under  the 
influence  of  Mrs.Masham,  one  of  her  attendants.  By 
her  husband,  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  she  had 
nineteen  children,  all  of  whom  died  in  infancy,  or  early 
youth.  Domestic  cares  and  sorrows  make  up  the 
burden  of  her  twelve  years  of  rule.  Prince  George, 
though  husband  to  the  queen,  had  little  to  do  with  the 
government  of  England.  That  his  abilities  were 
limited  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  sarcasm  of 
the  Merry  Monarch : " I have  tried  him  drunk  and 
sober,  and  can  find  nothing  in  him.”  In  accordance 
with  the  "Act  of  Settlement,” Anne  was  succeeded  by 
George,  Elector  of  Hanover,  son  of  Sophia,  wrho  was 
a granddaughter  of  James  I. 


CHAPTER  X. 


House  of  Brunswick  or  Hanover. 


GEORGE  I. 
GEORGE  II. 
GEORGE  III. 


GEORGE  IV. 
WILLIAM  IV. 
VICTORIA. 


George  I.,  1714  to  1727  — 13  years.  Brunswick. 

The  Jacobites.  George  I.  was  thoroughly  German 
in  his  tastes  and  habits,  as  well  as  birth  and  speech. 
He  manifested  little  interest  in  English  affairs,  passing 
most  of  his  time  in  his  German  kingdom,  which 
Thackeray  has  pronounced  as  fortunate  for  the  English 
people,  since  they  were  left  the  more  free  to  confirm 
their  newly  acquired  liberties.  The  adherents  of  the 
exiled  Stuarts,  called  Jacobites,  from  Jacobus,  Latin 
for  James,  had  been  very  busy  all  through  the  reign  of 
William,  plotting  his  overthrow,  usually  in  league  with 
Louis  XIV.  of  France.  Anne,  being  a Stuart  and  a 
Tory,  was  undisturbed  by  them,  but  during  the  latter 
part  of  her  reign,  there  was  a deep  laid  plot  to  place 
on  the  throne,  at  her  death,  the  son  of  James  II.  This 
plot  was  defeated  through  the  vigilance  of  the  Whigs, 
and  its  leaders  were  forced  into  exile,  or  brought  to 
trial  and  punishment.  The  Jacobites  were  sufficiently 
active  during  the  reign  of  George  I. , to  keep  the  latter 
in  a state  of  perpetual  alarm,  but  the  decease  of  Louis, 
their  most  powerful  friend,  was  a death  blow  to  their 
prospects. 


(238) 


GEORGE  I. 


239 


The  Pretender.  In  1715,  James  Francis  Stuart, 
son  of  James  II.,  and  called  the  Pretender,  caused  his 
standard  to  be  raised  in  Scotland,  under  the  Earl  of 
Mar.  Nothing  came  of  the  attempt  but  sorrow  and 
suffering  to  the  deluded  Highlanders  who  had  rallied  to 
his  support.  Mar  escaped  to  France  hi  company  with 
the  Pretender. 

Two  years  later,  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  having  a 
personal  quarrel  with  King  George  about  the  owner- 
ship of  certain  German  territory,  planned  an  invasion 
of  Scotland  in  the  interests  of  the  Pretender,  but  the 
sudden  death  of  the  warlike  Swede,  while  besieging  a 
castle  in  Norway,  brought  this  scheme  to  a sudden  ter- 
mination. 

Another  attempt  was  made  in  1719,  when  Spain, 
attempting  to  recover  the  territory  of  which  she  had 
been  despoiled,  provoked  a quadruple  alliance  of 
England,  France,  Germany,  and  Holland,  pledged  to 
oppose  her  scheme  of  recovery.  Her  fleet  being 
almost  annihilated  by  an  English  squadron,  off  the 
coast  of  Sicily,  King  Philip,  in  retaliation,  planned  an 
invasion  of  England  and  a rising  of  the  Jacobites,  in 
favor  of  the  Pretender.  The  Spanish  fleet  was  dis- 
persed by  a storm,  and  this  scheme,  too,  came  to 
nought. 

The  South  Sea  Scheme.  But  one  thing  of  interest 
remains  to  be  noticed,  the 'South  Sea  Scheme.  The 
expensive  wars  of  William  had  made  necessary  a 
national  debt,  amounting,  at  this  time,  to  fifty-three 
million  pounds.  The  offer  of  the  South  Sea  Company 
to  assume  the  entire  debt,  and  lend  money  to  the  gov- 
ernment at  the  low  rate  of  four  per  cent.,  besides 


240 


GEORGE  I. 


payiug  a bonus  of  seven  million  pounds,  in  considera- 
tion of  the  sole  right  of  trade  to  the  South  Seas,  was 
accepted  by  the  government.  The  plans  of  the  com- 
pany required  an  immense  outlay.  Not  having  suffi- 
cient capital  for  so  gigantic  an  enterprise,  the  company 
issued  an  indefinite  amount  of  South  Sea  stock, 
promising  large  dividends  to  all  who  wrould  invest. 
The  well-known  annual  return  of  the  galleons  of  Spain 
laden  with  the  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones  of 
South  America,  and  the  glowing  accounts  of  voyagers 
to  the  distant  Pacific,  concerning  the  tropical  wealth  of 
its  myriad  islands,  led  to  the  most  extravagant  notions 
of  the  value  of  the  South  Sea  trade. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  South  Sea  Company  had  the 
virtual  endorsement  of  the  government.  Its  stock 
sold  readily,  and  the  price  went  up  until  shares  worth 
a hundred  pounds  sold  for  a thousand.  The  excite- 
ment became  intense  and  increased  to  a phrensy.  All 
day  long,  eager  throngs  crowded  around  the  counters 
of  the  company.  The  hard-earned  savings  of  the  poor, 
as  well  as  the  superfluous  wealth  of  the  rich,  were 
swallowed  up  in  the  all-devouring  Maelstrom.  Other 
companies*  sprang  up  for  absurd,  and  even  impossible 
objects,  finding  eager  victims,  so  prevalent  was  the 
insane  spirit  of  speculation.  It  is  estimated  that  their 
entire  stock  would  amount  to  five  hundred  million 

* There  were  companies  “ to  fish  for  wrecks  on  the  Irish  coast,”  “ to  extract 
silver  from  lead,”  “ to  import  asses  from  Spain,”  “ for  a wheel  for  perpetual 
motion,”  “for  an  undertaking  that  shall  in  due  time  he  revealed,”  &c.,  &c. 

• All  these  companies  found  willing  victims.  As  if  the  companies  just  men- 
tioned were  not  a sufficiently  palpable  burlesque  on  the  prevailing  mania  for 
speculation,  a company  was  announced  “for  the  invention  of  melting  down 
eaw'dust  and  chips,  and  casting  them  into  clean  deal  boards  without  cracks  or 
knots.” 


GEORGE  I. 


241 


pounds  sterling,  twice  the  value,  at  that  time,  of  all 
the  land  in  England.  The  South  Sea  Company,  by 
an  Act  of  Parliament,  secured  the  suppression  of  all 
its  unlicensed  rivals.  Public  confidence  in  speculative 
schemes  was  shaken.  South  Sea  stock  shared  in  the 
general  distrust,  and  came  into  the  market  in  increasing 
quantities  ; the  price  went  down  ; a panic  ensued  ; and 
the  bubble  burst,  causing  wide-spread  ruin  and  dismay. 

The  Septennial  Act.  A single  constitutional  change 
was  made  during  this  reign.  The  Triennial  Act  had 
limited  the  sitting  of  Parliament  to  three  years,  but 
the  frequent  occurrence  of  elections  kept  the  country 
in  a state  of  constant  turmoil,  and  the  Septennial  Act 
was  passed,  lengthening  the  sitting  to  seven  jrears. 
George  I.  was  stricken  with  apoplexy  while  travelling 
in  Hanover,  and  died  in  his  carriage.  He  left  one  son, 
who  succeeded  him  with  the  title  George  II. 

George  II.,  1727  to  1760  — 33  Years.  Brunswick. 

Robert  Walpole.  Robert  Walpole  was  Prime  Min- 
ister of  England  during  the  last  six  years  of  the  reign 
of  George  I.,  and  he  continued,  during  the  first  fifteen 
years  of  the  reign  of  George  II.,  to  guide  the  affairs 
of  State.  He  first  came  into  prominence  at  the 
time  of  the  South  Sea  excitement,  having,  from 
the  first,  warned  his  countrymen  against  the  delusive 
" dream.”  But  it  was  in  the  midst  of  the  dismay  that 
followed  the  awaking,  that  Walpole  displayed  his 
matchless  skill  as  a financier,  suggesting  plans  to 
equalize  the  losses,  and  so  to  alleviate  the  general  dis- 
tress. The  chief  merits  of  his  policy  were  its  firm 
adherence  to  peace,  and  the  encouragement  it  gave 


2 42 


GEORGE  II. 


to  industry.  Its  grand  results  were  an  unprece- 
dented development  of  the  national  resources,  and  the 
re-establishment  of  the  public  credit.  The  English 
people,  being  no  longer  distracted  by  questions  of 
religion  and  liberty  at  home,  or  war  abroad,  directed 
their  energies,  as  never  before,  to  the  arts  of  peace.  A 
new  interest  was  awakened  in  commerce,  and  English 
merchant  ships  increased  in  every  sea.  A new  impulse 
was  given  to  manufactures,  and  great  busy  towns  grew 
up,  as  if  by  magic.  But  Walpole’s  administration, 
though  favorable  to  the  production  of  material  wealth, 
was  destructive  to  public  virtue.  He  retained  power 
only  through  the  indiscriminate  practice  of  bribery. 
Honors,  offices,  titles,  and  gold,  were  unsparingly  dis- 
tributed to  carry  borough  elections,  and  control  parlia- 
mentary votes.  "Every  man  has  his  price,”  was 
Walpole’s  pernicious  estimate  of  human  virtue,  and  the 
key-note  to  his  policy. 

War  with  Spain.  The  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1713, 
limited  the  commerce  of  England  with  Spanish  America 
to  slaves  and  the  use  of  a single  ship.  The  treaty  re- 
striction had  never  been  enforced  by  the  Spanish 
officials,  and  a lucrative  trade  had  gradually  grown  up. 
Sometime  after  Philip  had  mounted  the  Spanish  throne, 
the  two  countries  of  France  and  Spain  had  made  a secret 
treaty,  afterwards  called  the  "Family  Compact,”  France 
engaging  to  restore  Gibraltar  to  Spain,  and  Spam 
engaging  to  break  up  English  trade  with  South  Amer- 
ica. Almost  every  ship  that  arrived  from  South  Amer- 
ican waters  had  some  tale  to  tell  of  search  and  outrage 
by  Spanish  cruisers,  raising  the  war  feeling,  among  the 
English  people,  to  fever  height.  Walpole  long  strug- 


GEORGE  IT. 


243 


glcd  to  maintain  peace,  but,  in  1739,  lie  yielded  to  the 
pressure  and  declared  war  with  Spain.  Hearing  the 
bells  that  proclaimed  the  popular  joy,  Walpole  is  said, 
with  a wise  foresight,  to  have  remarked,  " They  may 
ring  their  bells  now ; before  long  they  will  be  wring- 
ing their  hands.”  The  war  was  unfortunate,  and,  as 
often  happens,  the  man  who  was  least  responsible  was 
most  generally  blamed.  Walpole  had  to  bear  the 
odium  of  the  now  unpopular  war.  But  its  area  soon 
widened. 

W ar  of  the  Austrian  Succession.  At  the  death  of 
Charles  VI.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  his  daughter  Maria 
Theresa  inherited  his  dominions.  The  Elector  of  Bavaria 
also  claimed  the  German  crown.  France  and  Spain  sup- 
ported the  cause  of  the  Elector ; England  and  Holland 
that  of  Maria  Theresa.  This  war  began  in  1741,  and 
was  called,  in  Europe,  the  "War  of  the  Austrian  Suc- 
cession,” in  America,  " King  George’s  War.”  Its  feeble 
conduct  on  the  part  of  England,  charged  to  the  apathy 
of  the  great  "peace  minister,”  made  him  so  unpopular, 
that  his  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons  dwindled 
to  a single  vote,  forcing  him  to  resign  in  1742.  King 
George  joined  the  army  on  the  continent,  and  won,  at 
its  head,  the  battle  of  Dettingen.  The  war  continued 
till  1748,  when,  by  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the 
claims  of  Maria  Theresa  were  allowed  by  all  the 
powers. 

The  only  event  of  importance  that  occurred  in 
America  during  this  war,  was  the  capture  of  Louis- 
burg,  on  Cape  Breton  Island,  called  from  its  great 
strength  the  Gibraltar  of  America.  It  was  taken  by 
an  expedition  that  sailed  from  Boston,  in  1745,  under 


244 


GEORGL  II. 


the  command  of  Sir  William  Peppercll.  Much  to  the 
disappointment  of  the  colonists,  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la- 
Chapcllc  compelled  the  restoration  of  Louisburg  to  the 
French. 

The  Young  Pretender.  While  the  war  was  in 
progress,  and  the  very  year  that  Louisburg  was  taken, 
another  and  a last  attempt  was  made  by  the  Stuarts  to 
recover  the  English  crown.  A grandson  of  James  II., 
Charles  Edward  Stuart,  called  the  young  Pretender, 
landed  on  the  western  coast  of  Scotland  with  but 
seven  followers.  The  Highland  clans  were  easily 
roused  at  the  call  of  a Stuart,  and  the  Pretender,  gain- 
ing a victory  at  Preston  Pans  over  the  troops  sent  to 
oppose  him,  soon  found  himself  at  the  head  of  six 
thousand  men,  and  marched  rapidly  on  London,  caus- 
ing, for  a time,  the  greatest  consternation.  English 
soldiers  were  hastily  withdrawn  from  the  continent, 
and  an  ample  force  soon  stood  between  the  Preten- 
der and  the  capital.  Scarcely  a Jacobite  had  joined 
him,  nor  were  there  any  signs  of  a Jacobite  rising, 
and  the  disappointed  Prince,  after  reaching  Derby, 
was  forced  by  the  Highland  chiefs  to  retreat. 

Culloden.  He  was  overtaken,  in  1746,  at  Culloden 
Moor,  near  Inverness,  and  his  army  was  defeated  with 
great  slaughter.  The  Pretender  escaped  from  the  battle- 
field, only  to  wander  a hunted  fugitive  amidst  the  wilds 
of  Scotland.  His  romantic  adventures  and  hair- 
breadth escapes  remind  us  of  the  perilous  wanderings 
of  Charles  II.  after  the  battle  of  Worcester.  With 
English  dragoons  patrolling  all  the  roads,  and  guard- 
ing every  pass,  and  English  cruisers  closely  watching 
the  Scottish  coast,  it  seemed  impossible  for  the  unfor- 


GEORGE  II. 


245 


tunate  prince  to  escape.  For  five  months  lie  found 
shelter  among  the  rough  but  devoted  Highlanders. 
At  one  time  he  was  thrown  upon  the  mercy  of  a band 
of  robbers,  living  with  them  in  a cave  near  the  coast. 
But  neither  Highlander  nor  robber  was  tempted  to 
betray  him  by  the  reward  of  thirty  thousand  pounds, 
which  the  king  had  placed  upon  his  head. 

The  Last  of  the  Stuarts.  With  the  departure  of  the 
Pretender  from  the  shores  of  Scotland,  the  Stuarts  dis- 
appear forever  from  the  pages  of  English  history. 
Forced  from  the  soil  of  France  by  the  Treaty  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  the  Pretender  went  to  Some,  where  he 
eked  out  a wretched  existence,  and  died,  in  1788,  a 
miserable  death.  His  younger  brother  Henry,  Cardi- 
nal of  York,  the  last  of  the  Stuarts,  died  at  Rome, 
some  twenty  years  later.  A monument,  erected  by 
Canova,  in  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome,  in  1816,  bears  three 
empty  titles,  James  III.,  Charles  III.,  and  Henry  IX. 

The  French  and  Indian  War.  The  French  owned 
Canada  and  Louisiana,  and  laid  claim  to  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  valleys,  by  virtue  of  early  explorations  by 
Jesuit  missionaries.  The  English  occupied  the  Atlantic 
sea-board  from  Xew  Brunswick  to  Florida,  and  claimed 
the  country  westward  to  the  Pacific,  basing  their  title 
on  the  discoveries  of  the  Cabots.  Both  parties  there- 
fore claimed  the  great  Mississippi  basin,  stretching 
from  the  Alleghanies  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  1749, 
George  II.  had  granted  a charter  to  a company  to 
settle  the  Ohio  valley. 

To  forestall  and  prevent  its  occupation  by  the  Eng- 
lish, the  French  planned  a chain  of  forts,  running  along 
the  line  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers,  purposing 


246 


GEORGE  IT. 


thus  to  connect  their  settlements  in  Canada  and  Louisi- 
ana. They  had  already  built  three  of  these  forts, 
beginning  with  Presque  Isle,  on  Lake  Eric,  when  the 
Governor  of  Virginia,  in  1753,  sent  George  Washington 
on  a mission  of  inspection  and  remonstrance.  He 
reported  the  French  as  firm  in  their  purpose  to  occupy 
the  disputed  territory.  Washington  was  sent,  the  next 
year,  with  a military  force  to  protect  the  laborers  of  the 
Ohio  Company,  who  were  engaged  in  building  a fort 
at  the  junction  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela 
rivers.  Before  his  arrival,  this  fort  was  captured  and 
completed  by  the  French,  who  named  it  Fort  Du 
Quesne.  Washington,  attacked  by  overwhelming  num- 
bers, was  forced  to  retreat  beyond  the  Alleghanies. 
France  and  England,  realizing  that  the  time  had  now 
come  for  the  struggle  for  dominion  in  America,  hur- 
ried forces  to  their  respective  colonies ; and  thus 
began,  in  1754,  the  French  and  Indian  War. 

The  Five  Important  Points.  The  French,  at  the 
outset,  occupied  five  important  points,  against  which 
the  efforts  of  the  English  were  mainly  directed.  Fort 
Du  Quesne,  standing  at  the  head- waters  of  the  Ohio, 
commanded  the  Ohio  Valley;  Fort  Niagara  controlled 
the  fur  trade  and  the  navigation  of  the  Great  Lakes  ; 
Forts  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  stood  right  in  the 
great  natural  highway  between  Canada  and  New  York  ; 
Quebec  was  the  key  to  the  possession  of  Canada,  while 
Louisburg  controlled  the  fisheries,  and  the  gulf  and 
river  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  earlier  conflicts  were 
lavorablc  to  the  French,  but  the  appointment  of 
William  Pitt  at  the  head  of  the  English  ministry 
caused  a more  vigorous  prosecution  of  the  war,  and 


GEOROE  II. 


247 


the  tide  soon  turned  in  favor  of  English  arms.  Louis- 
burg  and  Du  Quesne  surrendered  in  1758,  the  latter 
being  named  Fort  Pitt,  in  honor  of  the  great  minister. 
Ticonderoga,  Niagara,  and  Quebec,  yielded  in  1759. 

The  Battle  of  Quebec.  The  capture  of  Quebec 
decided  the  war.  It  was  taken  by  the  English  under 
Wolfe,  who  scaled  the  heights  of  Abraham,  and  defeated 
the  French  under  Montcalm,  on  the  plains  above.  Wolfe 
and  Montcalm  both  fell  mortally"  wounded,  while  fight- 
ing bravely  at  the  head  of  their  forces,  and  each  died 
willingly7,  the  one  rejoicing  in  his  country’s  success, 
and  the  other  unwilling  to  survive  his  country’s  defeat. 
As  Wolfe  lay  on  the  ground,  with  his  life  blood  fast 
ebbing  away,  an  officer  near  him  exclaimed,  "They7 
run,  they  run  ! ” Wolfe  raised  himself  on  his  elbow, 
and  asked"  Who  run?”  "The  enemy,  the  enemy7,”  was 
the  reply'.  "God  be  praised,  I die  happy7”  murmured 
the  noble  patriot,  as  his  great  soul  passed  away  from 
earth.  Montcalm,  when  conscious  that  his  wound 
was  mortal,  asked  the  surgeon  how  long  he  could  sur- 
vive. "Perhaps  a day7,  perhaps  less,”  was  the  reply. 
"So  much  the  better,”  said  the  suffering  hero,"  I shall 
not  live  to  see  the  surrender  of  Quebec.”  On  an 
obelisk,  erected  in  the  gardens  of  the  government 
house  at  Quebec,  the  name  of  Wolfe  was  placed  upon 
one  side,  and  that  of  Montcalm  upon  the  other,  — a noble 
tribute  of  a nation,  grateful  to  a patriot  son,  and 
generous  to  a manly  foe. 

A Proud  Year  in  English  Warfare.  The  year  1759 
is  one  of  the  proudest  in  the  annals  of  English  war- 
fare. The  battle  of  Quebec,  fought  on  the  13th  of 
September,  settled  the  question  of  dominion  in  America. 


248 


GEORGE  II. 


Five  days  after  this  battle,  Quebec  opened  its  gates  to 
the  English  army,  and  the  following  year,  all  Canada 
came  under  English  rule.  In  the  old  world  — where 
the  war  was  known  as  the  “ Seven  Years’  War” — the 
French  had  planned  two  campaigns,  the  one  for  the 
seizure  of  Hanover,  and  the  other  for  the  invasion  of 
England  itself.  The  victory  of  Minden,  won  August 
1st,  chiefly  through  the  valor  of  the  six  English  regi- 
ments in  the  army  of  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  forced 
the  French  back  to  the  Rhine,  and  Hanover  was  safe. 

The  French  fleet,  designed  to  aid  in  the  invasion  of 
England,  was  blockaded  in  the  harbor  of  Brest  by 
Admiral  Hawke.  The  latter  being  driven  by  a storm 
from  the  coast,  the  French  ventured  out,  but  his 
sudden  return  forced  them  to  take  shelter  among  the 
rocks  and  shoals  in  Quiberon  Bay.  The  pilot  on  board 
Hawke’s  flag-ship  remonstrated  against  the  latter’s 
decision  to  attack  the  French  on  so  dangerous  a coast, 
and  in  the  midst  of  a gale.  "You  have  done  your  duty 
in  this  remonstrance,”  said  the  brave  commander.  "Now 
lay  me  alongside  the  French  Admiral.”  And  there, 
amid  rocks  and  shoals,  in  the  darkness  and  tempest,  the 
brave  mariners  of  England  won  imperishable  honor. 
The  French  fleet  was  destroyed  or  dispersed,  and  Eng- 
land was  saved  from  all  danger  of  invasion. 

The  Struggle  for  Dominion  in  India.  Hardly  less 
important  was  the  struggle  between  France  and  Eng- 
land for  dominion  in  India.  In  1600,  during  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  a company  was  chartered  for  purposes  of 
trade  with  the  East  Indies.  In  1662,  Bombay  was 
acquired  by  the  marriage  of  Charles  II.  with  Catherine 
of  Braganza.  By  successive  Acts  of  Parliament,  the 


GEORGE  II. 


249 


East  India  company  was  vested  with  the  sole  govern- 
ment of  the  English  East  India  possessions.  It  or- 
ganized and  maintained  its  own  army,  and  established 
its  own  courts-  of  justice.  Its  principal  stations,  at  the 
time  of  the  accession  of  George  II.,  were  Madras, 
Bombay,  and  Calcutta.  The  French,  also,  had  trading 
stations  on  the  coast,  the  principal  one  being  at  Pondi- 
cherry. During  the  " War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,” 
the  French  governor  conceived  the  idea  of  expelling  the 
English  altogether  from  the  Indian  peninsula.  Allying 
himself  with  the  native  princes,  the  authority  of  France 
was  soon  established  throughout  most  of  the  Carnatic. 
Only  a single  native  prince  held  out  against  the  French, 
and  he  was  closely  besieged  in  his  last  stronghold. 
In  1751,  Kobert  Clive,  a poor  clerk  in  the  employ 
of  the  English  Company,  having  obtained  a com- 
mission, raised  a small  force  of  two  hundred  English, 
and  three  hundred  native  soldiers,  and  suddenly  sur- 
prised Arcot,  the  capital  of  the  Carnatic.  With  the  aid 
of  the  Mahrattas,  warlike  tribes  inhabiting  the  moun- 
tains, Clive  defeated  the  French  and  their  native  allies 
in  battle  after  battle,  and  established  the  supremacy 
of  the  English. 

Plassey.  In  1756,  Surnjah  Dowlah,  the  Viceroy  of 
Bengal,  fell  suddenly  upon  Calcutta,  making  captive 
its  entire  population.  One  hundred  and  forty-six 
prisoners  were  crowded  into  a dungeon  belonging  to 
the  fort,  called  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  eighteen 
feet  long  by  fourteen  wide,  and  having  only  two 
small  windows.  All  but  twenty-three  were  dead 
when  the  door  was  opened  the  next  morning.  When 
the  news  reached  Madras,  Clive  raised  a force  of 


250 


GEORGE  II. 


one  thousand  Englishmen  and  two  thousand  natives,  and 
pushed  rapidly  nefrthward  towards  the  Viceroy’s  capital. 
He  was  met  at  Plassey,  in  1757,  by  the  Viceroy  him- 
self, at  the  head  of  sixty  thousand  savage  natives, 
fifteen  thousand  of  whom  were  cavalry.  But  this 
great  host  was  completely  overthrown  by  the  brave 
little  army  under  Clive,  and  the  rich  and  populous 
district  of  Bengal  was  added  to  British  India.  The 

o 

wrar  against  the  French  was  prosecuted  with  vigor, 
and,  in  six  months  after  the  accession  of  George  III., 
the  English  dominion  in  India  was  firmly  established. 

George  III.,  1760  to  1820—60  Years.  Brunswick. 

The  Peace  of  Paris.  The  first  two  kings  of  the 
House  of  Hanover  wrere  German  to  the  last  in  taste 
and  feeling,  and  there  was  little  in  common  between 
them  and  their  English  subjects.  But  George  the 
Third  used  to  boast  that  " he  was  Briton  born,”  and  it 
was  then  something  to  be  proud  of,  for  England,  un- 
der the  guidance  of  the  "Great  Commoner,”  had  taken 
the  foremost  rank  among  the  nations  of  Europe.  In 
1763,  the  " Seven  Years’  War”  was  formally  terminated 
by  the  " Peace  of  Paris.”  Few  treaties  have  made  such 
sweeping  changes  as  this.  France  relinquished  to  Great 
Britain  not  only  the  disputed  territory  in  America,  but 
all  Canada  besides.  She  surrendered  to  Spain  the 
island  and  the  town  of  New  Orleans,  and  all  her  terri- 
tory west  of  the  Mississippi.  Of  her  vast  possessions 
in  North  America,  she  retained,  as  fishing  stations,  only 
two  small  islands,  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  lying  south 
of  Newfoundland.  By  the  same  treaty,  Spain  gave 
Florida  to  England,  in  exchange  for  Havana  and  the 


GEORGE  III. 


251 


Philippine  Islands,  which  England  had  taken  from  her 
during  the  war. 

Causes  of  the  American  Revolution. 

The  Repressive  Policy  of  England.  The  policy  of 
the  mother  country  towards  her  American  colonies 
had  always  been  a repressive  one.  Both  commerce 
and  manufactures  had  been  discouraged  by  laws  con- 
fining their  trade  to  English  ports,  and  to  the  use  of 
English  ships.  This  policy  was  inspired,  in  part,  by  a 
purpose  to  protect  home  industries,  and,  in  part,  by  a 
desire  to  keep  the  colonies  in  a state  of  dependence. 

Search  Warrants.  With  the  increase  of  colonial 
wealth,  came  schemes  for  a colonial  revenue.  Duties 
were  laid  on  certain  imports,  and,  as  a result,  the 
colonists,  without  calling  in  question  the  propriety 
of  such  duties,  resorted  to  an  organized  system  of 
smuggling.  To  correct  this  evil,  captains  of  English 
cruisers  were  empowered  to  search,  and,  in  case  of 
suspicion,  to  seize,  every  merchant  ship  entering  a 
colonial  port ; and,  on  the  land,  officers,  provided 
with  " search  warrants,”  were  authorized  to  break 
into  stores,  and  even  private  houses,  if  suspected 
of  containing  smuggled  goods,  violating  a principle 
long  dear  to  the  English  people,  that  " Every  man’s 
house  is  his  castle.” 

The  Stamp  Act.  No  direct  tax  had  ever  been  laid 
oh  America.  Such  a tax  had  been  suggested  as  early 
as  the  ministry  of  Walpole,  but  a consciousness  of  its 
injustice  had  hitherto  deterred  English  ministers  from 
attempting  to  levy  it.  In  1765,  during  the  ministry  of 
Lord  Grenville,  a tax  was  laid  on  stamps,  whose  use  on 


252 


GEORGE  III. 


papers,  pamphlets,  and  legal  documents,  was  made  obli- 
gatory by  Act  of  Parliament.  This  direct  tax  was  held 
to  be  justifiable,  on  the  ground  of  the  expenses  incurred 
by  the  home  government  in  prosecuting  the  French  and 
Indian  war.  But  this  was  a mere  pretext,  for  the  Eng- 
lish ministry  could  not  have  been  ignorant  that  the 
colonies  had  borne  more  than  their  share  of  the  burdens 
of  the  war.  The  spirit  of  opposition  in  the  colonies  was 
so  intense  and  universal,  that  the  Stamp  Act  was  re- 
pealed the  next  year  ; but  the  repeal  was  coupled  with 
an  affirmation  of  the  right  of  Parliament  " to  bind  the 
colonies  in  all  cases  whatsoever.” 

Boston  Port  Bill.  After  resorting  to  various  devices 
to  secure  submission  on  the  part  of  the  colonies,  even 
sending  regiments  of  soldiers,  as  a menace  to  the  people 
of  Boston,  the  British  government  , in  1773,  laid  a trivial 
tax  of  three  pence  per  pound  on  tea.  But  this  too  failed, 
for  with  the  colonies,  it  was  not  a question  of  money, 
but  of  principle.  They  had  no  voice  in  the  delibera- 
tions of  the  body  that  taxed  them.  "Taxation  with- 
out representation  is  tyranny,”  was  the  principle  on 
which  they  took  their  stand.  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia sent  the  unbroken  chests  of  tea  back  to  Eng- 
land. In  Charleston,  they  were  stored  in  damp  cellars, 
until  their  contents  became  worthless.  At  Boston,  the 
cargoes  of  three  ships  were  poured  into  the  bay  by 
men  disguised  as  Mohawks.  In  retaliation,  the  port  of 
Boston  was  closed  to  commerce,  and  the  charter  of 
Massachusetts  annulled,  by  Act  of  Parliament. 

Battle  of  Lexington,  April  19th,  1775.  From 
this  moment,  the  colonies  were  a unit  in  the  pur- 
pose to  oppose  the  oppressions  of  the  English  govern- 


GEORGE  III. 


253 


ment.  The  public  mind  was  rapidly  educated  to 
resistance  by  such  dauntless  patriots  as  John  Hancock, 
John  Adams,  Samuel  Adams,  Patrick  Henry,  and 
Benjamin  Franklin.  Delegates  from  twelve  colonies 
met  at  Philadelphia  in  September,  1774,  forming  what 
is  known  as  the  First  Continental  Congress.  While 
expressing  their  loyalty  to  the  mother  country,  they 
boldly  asserted  their  rights  as  colonies.  Their  petitions 
and  protests  were  slighted  by  Parliament  and  spurned 
by  the  king.  The  breach  rapidly  widened,  and  war 
became  inevitable.  General  Gage,  commander  of  the 
British  troops  in  Boston,  having  learned  that  military 
stores  were  being  collected  at  Concord  for  the  use  of  a 
colonial  army,  sent  a detachment  of  eight  hundred 
soldiers  to  destroy  them.  But  its  march  had  been 
preceded  by  a swift  messenger,  the  gallant  Paul  Revere, 
who  gave  notice  of  the  coming  of  the  British.  The 
whole  country  on  the  line  of  march  was  aroused, 
and  " minute  men  ” began  to  muster.  A company  was 
drawn  up  on. the  village  green  at  Lexington  when  the 
British  force  came  up.  Refusing  to  disperse  at  the 
order  of  the  commanding  officer,  seven  men  fell  dead  at 
the  first  volley  of  the  British  soldiers.  The  latter  then 
marched  on  to  Concord,  and  succeeded  in  destroying 
some  of  the  stores,  when  the  gathering  of  "minute  men” 
from  all  quarters  compelled  them  to  retreat.  But 
retreat  was  more  dangerous  than  battle.  All  along  its 
line,  rocks,  and  trees,  and  walls,  concealed  the  undisci- 
plined but  now  determined  colonists,  whose  unerring 
bullets  constantly  thinned  the  British  ranks.  Re- 
inforcements alone  saved  the  latter  from  annihilation- 


254 


GEORGE  III. 


The  battle  of  Lexington,  fought  on  the  19th  of 
April,  1775,  was  the  signal  to  all  the  colonies  that  the 
war  had  actually  begun.  Volunteers  came  pouring  in 
from  all  parts  of  New  England.  In  a few  days  after 
this  battle  sixteen  thousand  " minute  men  ” were 
gathered  in  the  environs  of  Boston. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence.  The  Second 
Continental  Congress  assembled  at  Philadelphia  in 
May,  1775.  Measures  were  taken  to  raise  and  main- 
tain an  army,  of  which  George  Washington  was  elected 
Commander-in-chief.  But  the  most  important  work 
of  this  Congress  was  the  passage,  on  the  4th  of  July, 
1776,  of  a Declaration  of  Independence.  Hitherto, 
the  colonies  had  petitioned,  respectfully  but  earnestly, 
for  a redress  of  grievances  ; now,  as  a sovereign  people, 
they  boldly  declared,  and  prepared  to  maintain,  com- 
plete independence. 

It  was  an  unequal  contest.  A few  weak  and 
scattered  colonies  were  opposed  to  the  most  powerful 
empire  in  the  world.  In  the  field,  an  untaught  militia, 
scantily  supplied  with  munitions  of  war,  and  often 
destitute  of  food  and  clothing,  were  pitted  against  well- 
trained  and  well-furnished  veterans.  But  inspired  by 
the  example  of  Washington,  their  noble  commander, 
the  patriot  soldiers  endured  privations  without  com- 
plaint, suffered  defeat  without  despair,  and  patiently 
learned  the  art  of  war  from  its  practice. 

The  earlier  events  of  the  war  were  unfavorable  to 
the  Americans.  Their  gallant  stand  at  Bunker  Hill, 
and  the  successful  siege  of  Boston,  while  giving 
them  confidence  in  themselves,  weighed  little  on  the 
issie,  compared  with  the  defeats  at  Long  Island  and 


GEORGE  III. 


255 


White  Plains,  and  the  forced  retreat  of  Washington 
through  New  Jersey  and  across  the  Delaware.  The 
prospect  that  had  looked  so  gloomy  during  the  year 
1776,  brightened  a little,  at  its  close,  with  a brilliant 
success  at  Trenton,  and  with  another,  in  the  early 
part  of  1777,  at  Princeton.  The  crisis  of  the  war  was 
reached  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1777. 

Surrender  of  Burgoyne  and  Alliance  with  France. 
The  British  had  planned  two  campaigns,  which,  if  suc- 
cessful, they  confidently  believed,  would  bring  the 
colonies  to  terms.  One  of  these  had  for  its  object  the 
capture  of  Philadelphia,  then  the  colonial  capital,  and 
the  other,  the  isolation  of  New  England  from  the  rest 
of  the  country.  The  first,  though  successful,  proved 
to  be  of  no  advantage  to  the  British.  Washington, 
beaten  at  Brandywine  and  Germantown,  was  compelled 
to  yield  the  capital  to  Howe.  Congress  removed  to 
York.  The  second  was  disastrous  to  the  British. 
General  Burgoyne  had  organized,  in  Canada,  a grand 
expedition  composed  of  ten  thousand  well-armed  and 
well-trained  men.  He  moved  up  Lake  Champlain  and 
along  the  line  of  the  Hudson,  capturing  forts  and  driv- 
ing the  Americans  before  him.  Checked  at  Bemis's 
Heights,  he  was  surrounded  and  beaten  at  Saratoga, 
and  compelled,  on  the  17th  of  October,  to  surrender 
his  whole  force  to  General  Gates.  The  effect  of  this 
signal  success  was  marked  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
It  was,  in  fact,  the  turning  point  in  the  war.  The 
Americans  took  new  courage.  Foreign  nations  were 
inspired  with  increased  respect  for  a people  struggling 
so  bravely  against  such  fearful  odds.  France  had 
watched  the  course  of  *he  contest  with  keenest  inter- 


256 


GEORGE  III. 


est.  Though  animated  by  the  bitterest  hatred  of 
England,  and  anxious  for  the  success  of  the  colonies, 
she  had  been  unwilling  to  ally  herself  with  an  uncer- 
tain cause.  After  Saratoga,  she  hastened  to  acknowl- 
edge the  independence  of  the  colonies,  and  to  make 
with  them  a treaty  of  alliance.  She  sent  a fleet  and 
an  army,  at  once,  to  their  assistance.  Spain  and  Hol- 
land acknowledged  their  independence  a little  later. 

William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham.  Not  less  marked 
was  the  effect  of  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne  on  the 
English  people.  Public  sentiment  grew  strong  against 
the  war.  Some  of  the  ablest  English  statesmen  urged 
an  immediate  peace.  A motion  was  made  in  Parlia- 
ment by  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  to  acknowledge  the 
independence  of  America  and  withdraw  British  soldiers 
from  American  soil.  This  brought  William  Pitt,  Earl 
of  Chatham,  once  more  and  for  the  last  time,  into 
the  House  of  Lords.  Leaning  on  his  crutches,  with 
his  limbs  swathed  in  bandages,  pale  and  emaciated,  but 
with  faculties  apparently  undimmed,  the  great  orator 
denounced,  with  the  impassioned  eloquence  of  which  he 
was  still  master,  the  proposition  to  yield  up  one  of  the 
fairest  possessions  of  the  British  empire,  as  he  said,  at 
the  dictation  of  France.  Attempting  to  speak  again  in 
reply  to  the  Duke,  he  fell  back  in  a swoon,  and  was 
borne  away  to  die.  Pitt  had  opposed  the  scheme  of 
taxation  from  the  outset,  and  he  had  resisted,  step  by 
step,  the  policy  of  coercion  which  had  been  adopted. 
Illness  had  forced  him  to  retire  from  office  in  1768, 
but  he  had  not  ceased,  in  his  retirement,  to  utter  his 
solemn  warnings  to  the  government  and  to  the  nation. 
On  occasions  of  importance,  though  ill,  he  had  been 


GEORGE  III. 


257 


brought  into  the  House  of  Lords,  in  which  his  Earldom 
entitled  him  to  a seat,  to  participate  in  its  deliberations. 
Pitt  was  the  friend  of  America  because  he  was  the 
friend  of  justice,  but  he  was  an  Englishman  and  a 
patriot,  and  his  soul  revolted  at  the  thought  of  the 
dismemberment  of  his  country. 

Yorktown,  A.  D.  1781.  It  was  owing  to  the  obstinacy 
of  King  George,  that  the  motion  of  Richmond  did  not 
prevail.  Though  the  war  lingered  for  several  years, 
chiefly  in  the  South,  the  final  issue  was  never  doubt- 
ful after  the  success  at  Saratoga.  Its  closing  scene  was 
laid  at  Yorktown,  in  Virginia.  Lord  Cornwallis, 
hemmed  in,  on  one  side,  by  an  ample  force  of  French 
and  Americans  under  Washington,  and,  on  the  other, 
by  a French  fleet  under  Count  de  Grasse,  was  com- 
pelled, on  the  19th  of  October,  1781,  to  surrender. 

Peace  of  Paris.  Though  virtually  ended  in  America, 
the  war  still  continued  among  the  European  combat- 
ants. England  gained  repeated  victories  on  the  sea. 
The  most  interesting  event  was  the  heroic  defence  of 
Gibraltar  by  General  Elliot,  against  the  combined 
forces  and  fleets  of  France  and  Spain,  through  a siege 
of  three  years  and  seven  months.  September  3rd, 
1783,  articles  of  peace  were  formally  signed  at  Paris, 
and  the  United  States  of  America  took  her  place, 
unchallenged,  in  the  grdj^k family  of  nations. 

Causes  of  the  French  Revolution. 

The  Despotic  Rule  of  Louis  XIV.  Louis  XIV.  was 
a superb  monarch.  His  court  was  as  magnificent  and  his 
rule  as  absolute  as  those  of  an  Eastern  despot.  Louis 
uttered  no  idle  boast  when  he  once  said,  " I am  the 


258 


GEORGE  III. 


State,”  for  ad  the  powers  of  the  State  were  centered  in 
his  single  person.  The  French  nobles,  though  slaves 
to  the  king,  were  tyrants  to  their  tenants,  grinding 
them  with  taxation,  from  which  they  were  themselves 
almost  wholly  exempt.  Louis’  system  of  government 
was  a Feudalism  as  oppressive  to  the  poor  as  that  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  With  him  passed  away  much  of  the 
regal  splendor  that  had  dazzled,  and  the  personal 
power  that  had  awed,  the  people  of  France.  But  the 
worst  features  of  his  system,  its  despotism,  extor- 
tion, and  extravagance,  remained  under  his  successor. 

The  Corrupt  Rule  of  Louis  XV.  Louis  XV.  sur- 
passed all  his  predecessors  in  the  vileness  of  his  private 
life,  and  in  his  wanton  waste  of  the  public  money. 
Evidences  of  discontent  among  the  suffering  people 
became  more  and  more  apparent.  The  king  plainly 
foresaw  a coming  storm,  but  he  took  no  means  to  avert 
its  calamities  from  his  people,  or  from  his  successors 
on  the  throne.  He  was  only  solicitous  for  his  own 
safety.  "Things  will  last  my  day,”  was  his  monstrous 
speech  on  one  occasion.  "After  us  the  deluge,”  replied 
the  royal  favorite,  Madame  Pompadour,  and  the  reck- 
less pair  only  plunged  the  deeper  into  every  species  of 
excess. 

The  Inefficient  Rule  of  Louis  XVI.  Louis  XVI. 
was  a mild  and  pious  king,  but  he  had  neither  the 
ability,  nor  the  vigor,  to  cope  with  the  perils  that 
gathered  darkly  around  the  throne  which  he  inherited. 

The  French  Sceptics.  The  popular  discontent  had 
been  intensified  by  a class  of  literary  men,  who  had 
flourished  in  the  preceding  reign,  among  whom  Vol- 
taire and  Rosseau  had  stood  foremost.  With  the 


GEORGE  III. 


259 


fiery  eloquence  peculiar  to  French  genius,  they  had 
disseminated  the  most  extreme  views  on  subjects  that 
profoundly  agitated  the  public  mind,  such  as  class 
privileges,  unequal  taxation,  and  popular  rights,  kin- 
dling in  the  excitable  bosoms  of  the  French  people  a 
burning  love  of  liberty,  and  a bitter  hatred  of  oppression. 
But  they  also  taught  infidelity  to  religion,  and  contempt 
for  established  order,  striking  at  the  very  foundations 
of  society  itself.  The  seed  sown  by  French  sceptics, 
at  this  period,  took  deep  root,  and  ripened,  before 
long,  into  bitter  fruit. 

The  Influence  of  the  American  Revolution.  One 

other  influence,  operating  on  the  French  mind,  remains 
to  be  mentioned,  and  one  of  no  light  import  at  this 
period.  The  French  soldiers  had  returned  from 
America,  at  the  close  of  the  revolutionary  war,  full  of 
the  republican  spirit,  which  they  readily  communicated 
to  their  friends  and  neighbors,  making  them  familiar 
with  the  idea  of  revolution,  and  especially,  with  the 
merits  of  a democratic  form  of  government. 

The  States-General.  Louis  XVI.,  conscious  that  the 
public  credit  was  gone,  and  that  a crisis  in  the  finances 
of  the  government  was  at  hand,  in  1789  summoned  the 
States-General,  a body  composed  of  nobles,  clergy  and 
commons,  that  met  only  in  times  of  national  peril.  Its 
last  session  was  in  1614,  in  the  time  of  Richelieu. 
But  the  meeting  of  the  States-General  only  precipitated 
the  storm  which  it  was  designed  to  avert.  The  com- 
mons, or  Third  Estate,  as  they  were  called,  ignoring 
nobles  and  clergy,  declared  themselves  to  be  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  State. 


260 


GEORGE  III. 


The  Revolution  Sweeps  away  Church  and  State. 

This  action  of  the  commons  was  revolution,  whose 
bloodless  beginning  in  legislative  halls  was  but  the 
first  breath  of  the  coming  storm,  that  was  soon  to  rock, 
to  their  very  base,  all  the  institutions  of  Church  and 
State,  and,  finally,  to  involve  them  in  complete  and 
indiscriminate  ruin. 

A Paris  mob  destroj^ed  the  Bastile,  the  hated  prison, 
in  whose  dungeons  had  been  silenced,  for  so  many 
generations,  the  murmurs  of  the  people.  The  blame- 
less king  and  his  accomplished  queen,  Maria  Antoinette, 
subjected  to  one  indignity  after  another,  at  last  perished 
under  the  guillotine.  The  Monarchy  was  overthrown, 
and  a Republic  was  erected  in  its  stead.  The  Christian 
Sabbath  was  abolished,  and  every  tenth  day  was  made 
a day  of  secular  rest.  A solemn  vote  decreed  that 
there  was  no  God,  and  Reason  was  enthroned  as  the 
object  of  supreme  worship.  Over  the  entrance  to 
every  cemetery  in  the  land  was  written,  "Death  is  an 
eternal  sleep.” 

The  Reign  of  Terror.  One  political  party  followed 
another  in  power,  each  more  violent  than  the  other, 
until,  under  the  National  Convention,  with  Robespierre 
at  the  head,  the  climax  was  reached  in  the  inaugura- 
tion of  a "Reign  of  Terror.”  The  guillotine  was 
glutted  with  victims,  and  the  best  blood  of  France 
flowed  like  water.  It  is  computed  that  a million  per- 
sons perished  during  this  mad  carnival  of  blood.  The 
excesses  of  the  Republic  at  home,  and  its  efforts  to 
arouse  the  revolutionary  spirit  abroad,  soon  raised 
against  it  a coalition  of  the  most  powerful  nations  of 
Europe. 


GEORGE  III. 


261 


Napoleon  Bonaparte.  The  stirring  events  of  the 
times  brought  to  the  surface,  about  the  year  1795,  the 
most  extraordinary  mail  of  modern  times.  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  was  born  on  the  island  of  Corsica,  a French 
dependency  in  the  Mediterranean.  lie  was  educated 
at  a military  school  inBrienne,  a town  in  France,  show- 
ing, even  in  youth,  the  germs  of  that  genius  which  after- 
wards made  him  so  distinguished.  His  skill  and  cou.r- 
age  at  the  siege  of  Toulon,  and  his  bold  defence  of  the 
Directory,  the  successor  to  the  National  Convention, 
against  the  National  Guards,  in  1795,  placed  him,  at 
once,  at  the  head  of  the  armies  of  the  Republic.  lie 
returned  from  his  first  campaign  in  Italy,  the  idol  of  the 
French  people.  His  second  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  in 
1797,  designed  to  establish  a French  empire,  and 
undermine  that  of  England,  in  the  East,  was  a complete 
failure.  Napoleon  won  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids,  but 
was  repulsed  at  Acre,  while  his  fleet  was  annihilated 
by  Nelson,  in  the  battle  of  the  Nile. 

Leaving  his  generals  to  complete  the  hopeless  cam- 
paign, Napoleon  returned  to  France  to  overthrow 
the  Directory,  and  to  become  First  Consul  in  1799, 
Consul  for  life  in  1802,  and  Emperor  in  1804. 
From  the  time  of  his  election  as  First  Consul  in  1799, 
to  his  fall  in  1814,  the  history  of  France,  and  almost 
of  Europe,  is  the  history  of  Napoleon.  Coalition  after 
coalition  of  the  powers  of  Europe  sprang  into  existence, 
only  to  be  dissolved  by  his  diplomacy,  or  crushed  by  his 
power.  These  coalitions  were  no  longer  formed  for  the 
destruction  of  the  Republic,  or  the  restoration  of  the 
Monarchy,  for  Napoleon  had  overthrown  the  one,  and 
restored  the  other,  but  they  were  formed  against  Napo- 


GEORGE  III. 


202 


Icon  himself,  who  had  inspired  more  terror  in  the 
hearts  of  the  kings,  than  had  even  the  dread  spectre  of 
Democracy  itself. 

Admiral  Nelson.  England  alone,  of  all  the  powers 
of  Europe,  remained,  through  Napoleon’s  whole  career, 
undaunted  and  unconquered.  England  alone,  deserted 
at  times,  by  all  her  allies,  stood  between  Napoleon 
and  universal  conquest.  Said  the  great  soldier,  when, 
in  1802,  he  had  gathered  one  hundred  thousand 
trained  soldiers  at  Boulogne,  and  a vast  fleet  of  trans- 
ports to  land  them  on  the  shores  of  England,  "Let 
us  be  masters  of  the  Channel  for  six  hours,  and  we  are 
masters  of  the  world.”  But  the  fleet,  designed  to  pro- 
tect the  crossing  of  the  transports,  was  swept  from  the 
Channel,  and  blockaded  in  the  harbor  of  Cadiz  by  the 
gallant  Nelson,  and  the  invasion  was  not  even  at- 
tempted. 

The  French  and  Spanish  fleets,  venturing  forth  from 
Cadiz,  were  met  and  annihilated,  off  Cape  Trafalgar,  in 
1805.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Nelson  gave  the 
famous  order,  " England  expects  every  man  to  do  his 
duty,”  — the  grandest  sentiment  ever  signaled  from 
the  mast-head  of  a flag-ship,  on  the  eve  of  battle.  It 
was  Nelson’s  last  order.  He  was  struck,  in  the  very 
heat  of  the  contest,  by  a musket  ball,  while  standing 
on  the  deck  of  his  ship,  the  Victory.  Covering  his 
face  with  his  handkerchief,  that  the  crew  might  not  see 
who  was  wounded,  he  was  carried  below,  and  died  just 
after  victory  was  assured. 

The  Struggle  on  the  Spanish  Peninsula.  In  1808, 
began  the  struggle  between  England  and  France  for 
the  mastery  in  Spain,  the  army  of  the  former  being 


GEORGE  III. 


2G3 


under  the  command  of  Arthur  Wellesley,  distinguished 
for  his  services  in  Indii,  that  of  the  latter,  under  Soult, 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  Napoleon’s  marshals. 
Victory  long  wavered  in  the  balance,  but  finally,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  year  1814,  the  scale  turned  in  favor 
of  English  arms,  and  the  last  French  soldier  was  driven 
across  the  Pyrenees  into  France.  For  his  success  in 
Spain,  especially  at  Talavera,  in  1809,  Wellesley  was 
rewarded  with  the  title  of  Duke  of  Wellington.  In 
other  parts  of  the  continent,  Napoleon  had  generally 
been  victorious,  carrying  the  eagles  of  France  into 
almost  every  capital.  Ulm  and  Austerlitz,  Jena  and 
Wagram,  were  witnesses  of  his  amazing  success. 

The  Invasion  of  Russia.  In  1812,  when  at  the 
summit  of  his  power,  Napoleon  undertook  the  inva- 
sion of  Russia.  This  has  been  regarded  as  the  turning 
point  in  his  career.  After  advancing  for  a period  of 
three  months,  during  which  several  bloody  battles  were 
fought,  he  reached  Moscow,  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
empire,  only  to  see  it  speedily  laid  in  ashes.  The  rich 
and  beautiful  city  was  sacrificed,  that  the  invader  might 
find  no  shelter.  The  food  in  all  the  country  around  had 
been  destroyed,  and  winter  was  fast  approaching. 
After  waiting  more  than  a month,  in  the  vain  hope  of 
peace,  there  was  no  alternative  for  Napoleon  but 
retreat.  The  story  is  a sad  one.  Thousands  of  brave 
men  died  at  the  hands  of  the  wild  Cossacks,  clouds  of 
whom  hovered  around  the  devoted  army,,  day  and 
night,  ever  on  the  alert  to  attack  the  helpless  masses, 
or  cut  off  straggling  soldiers.  Thousands  more  per- 
ished with  cold,  hunger,  and  exhaustion,  amid  the 
drifting  mows  which  cover  that  vast  region  of  pine  and 


264 


GEORGE  III. 


plain.  Nearly  half  a million  gallant  and  stalwart  men 
began  the  proud  march  that  was  to  add  Russia  to  the 
list  of  Napoleon’s  conquests.  Only  thirty  thousand 
wan  and  haggard  spectres  lived  to  recross  the  Niemcn. 

The  Battle  of  the  Nations.  To  any  but  Napoleon, 

the  Russian  disaster  would  have  been  overwhelming. 

© 

But  with  an  energy  almost  superhuman  he  gathered  up 
the  fragments  of  his  armies,  made  fresh  conscriptions, 
and  boldly  faced  a new,  and  still  more  powerful  coali- 
tion of  his  foes.  The  decisive  conflict,  the  ''Battle  of 
the  Nations,”  occurred  at  Leipsic,  in  1814,  lasting 
three  days,  and  ending  in  the  complete  discomfiture  of 
the  French.  A desperate  but  hopeless  struggle  on  the 
soil  of  France  deferred,  but  could  not  prevent,  the  fall 
of  Paris. 

Napoleon  at  Elba.  Napoleon  was  deposed  and  ban- 
ished to  the  island  of  Elba,  over  which  he  was  allowed 
to  rule  with  the  title  of  Emperor,  and  Louis  XVIII. 
wras  placed  upon  the  throne  of  his  ancestors.  "While  a 
congress  of  sovereigns  and  ministers  of  the  leading 
powers  was  in  session  at  Vienna,  to  re-adjust  the  dis- 
ordered affairs  of  Europe,  Napoleon,  secretly  leaving 
his  little  empire  in  the  Mediterranean,  landed  on  the 
shores  of  France,  and  began  a triumphant  march 
on  the  capital.  Thousands  of  the  old  soldiers  of  the 
empire  flocked  to  his  standard,  and  he  soon  entered 
Paris,  surrounded  by  an  excited  populace,  whose  old, 
familiar  cry,  "Long  live  the  Emperor,”  rent  the  air  on 
every  side.  Louis  XVIII.  fled  in  dismay  to  the 
frontiers. 

Waterloo,  A.  D.  1815.  The  astonished  kings  at 
Vienna,  suddenly  startled  from  their  dream  of  fancied 


GEORGE  III 


205 

security,  and  conscious  that  their  crowns  and  kingdoms 
were  once  more  at  stake,  quickly  formed  a new  co- 
alition. The  council  chamber  was  forsaken  for  the  camp, 
and  half  a million  of  men,  coming  from  every  quarter  of 
the  continent  of  Europe,  were  soon  on  the  march  for 
France.  The  armies  of  England  and  Prussia  were 
first  in  the  field.  Napoleon,  hoping  to  crush  them  in 
detail,  before  their  junction  with  the  rest,  hastened  to 
Belgium,  the  great  battle  ground  of  Europe,  where  he 
found  himself  confronted  by  the  English  under  Wel- 
lington. On  the  field  of  Waterloo,*  at  the  close  of  a 
Sabbath  day  in  June,  Napoleon’s  sun  once  more  set, 
never  to  rise  again.  His  last  devoted  army,  after  dash- 


*The  battle  of  Waterloo  — called  by  the  French  St.  Jean  — was  fought  on  a 
Sunday.  All  night  before,  the  rain  had  fallen  in  torrents ; and  when  the  troops 
rose  from  their  cheerless  bivouac  among  the  crushed  and  muddy  rye,  a driz- 
zling rain  still  fell.  The  armies  faced  each  other  upon  two  gentle  slopes,  near 
which  ran  the  high  road  to  Brussels.  The  army  ot  Wellington  numbered  more 
than  70,000,  — that  of  Napoleon  about  80.000  men.  Between,  in  a slight  hollow, 
lay  the  farm-houses  of  Hougomont  and  La  Haye  Saiute,  round  which  the 
bloodiest  combats  of  the  day  took  place.  The  battle  began  at  ten  o’clock. 
Napoleon  knew  that  he  was  a ruined  man  unless  he  could  pierce  and  break  the 
red  masses  that  lay  between  him  and  Brussels.  He  kept  closely  to  one  plan  of 
action,  — a storm  of  shot  and  shell  upon  the  British  ranks,  and  then  a rapid 
rush  of  lancers  and  steel-clad  cuirassiers.  But  the  British  infantry,  formed 
into  solid  squares,  met  every  charge  like  the  rocks  that  encircle  their  native 
shore.  Again,  and  again,  and  again  the  baffled  cavalry  of  France  recoiled  with 
many  an  empty  saddle.  This  was  a terrible  game  to  play;  and  well  might 
Wellington,  when  he  looked  on  the  squares,  growing  every  moment  smaller,  as 
soldier  alter  soldier  stepped  silently  into  the  place  of  his  fallen  comrade,  pray 
that  either  night  or  Blucher  would  come.  It  was  seven  o’clock  in  the  evening 
before  the  distant  sound  of  the  Prussian  cannon  was  heard.  Blucher  had  out- 
marched Grouchy,  and  was  hastening  to  Waterloo.  Napoleon  then  made  the 
grandest  effort  of  the  day.  The  Old  Guard  of  France,  unoonquered  veterans 
of  Austerlitz  and  Jena,  burst  in  a furious  onset  upon  the  shattered  ranks  of 
Britain ; but,  at  one  magic  word,  the  British  squares  dissolved  into  ‘ thin  red 
lines,’  glittering  With  bayonets,  and,  with  a cheer  that  rent  the  smoke-cloud 
hovering  above  the  field,  swept  on  to  meet  the  foe.  The  French  columns 
wavered  — broke  — fled;  and  Waterloo  was  won. — [Collier. 


2GG 


GEORGE  III. 


ing  again  and  again,  like  ocean  billows,  against  the  red 
English  squares  that  stood  rf  like  the  ro  ks  that  encircle 
their  native  shore,”  poured,  bleeding,  back  to  France. 

Napoleon  at  St.  Helena.  In  1815,  about  twenty 
years  after  his  first  appearance  on  the  stage  of  European 
politics,  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  consigned  to  per- 
petual captivity  on  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  in  the 
heart  of  the  Atlantic.  Ilis  career  constitutes  one  of 
the  most  thrilling  episodes  in  all  history.  Reverses  of 
fortune  are  among  the  most  common  events  of  human 
life,  but  the  annals  of  the  past  furnish  few  instances  to 
compare  with  that  of  Napoleon.  Since  few  can  rise  to 
so  dizzy  a height  of  power  and  glory,  few  can  experience 
so  great  a fall.  What  a contrast ! Napoleon  the  Em- 
peror, and  Napoleon  the  Exile  ! Napoleon  conquering 
states  and  dispensing  thrones,  at  once  the  terror  and 
admiration  of  a continent,  and  Napoleon,  sad,  solitary, 
and  forgotten,  looking  hopelessly  out  from  the  lonely, 
barren  rock,  upon  the  silent,  shoreless  sea,  the  mighty 
soul  within  stirred  only  with  the  melancholy  memory 
of  vanished  grandeur!  On  the  5th  of  May,  1821, 
while  a hurricane  swept  with  unusual  violence  across 
the  unprotected  isle,  and  the  surging'  billows  beat 
with  a mournful  and  monotonous  sound  upon  the 
shore,  the  fettered,  restless  spirit  of  the  great  soldier 
passed  away  from  earth.  What  a commentary  does  the 
career  of  Napoleon  furnish,  on  the  instability  of  worldly 
things,  and  the  evanescent  character  of  worldly  glory. 
Resting  on  any  other  foundation  than  that  of  everlast- 
ing truth  and  right,  the  grandest  conceptions  of  the 
genius  of  man  often  prove  as  fleeting  and  unreal  as 
the  " baseless  fabric  of  a dream.”  His  gilded  creations, 
however  stable  they  may  seem,  will  flash  for  a few 


GEORGE  III. 


267 


brief  hours  in  the  sunlight  of  hope,  and  then  fade  with 
the  gathering  twilight,  and  vanish  utterly  away  in  the 
quick  coming  night. 

Causes  of  England’s  Second  War  with  the  United  States. 

Eight  of  Search  and  Impressment  of  Seamen.  In 

the  midst  of  the  wars  with  Napoleon,  and  just  as  the 
latter  was  getting  ready  to  invade  Russia,  England 
engaged  in  her  second  war  with  the  United  States,  in 
defence  of  the  " right  of  search  ” and  of  the  " impress- 
ment of  seamen.”  So  exhausting  were  the  wars  with 
Napoleon,  that  England  could  with  difficulty  find 
seamen  for  her  navy.  It  was  a settled  principle  of 
her  government,  that  a person  born  a British  subject 
could  never  surrender  his  allegiance  to  his  country, 
no  matter  in  what  part  of  the  world  he  might  take  up 
his  abode.  Acting  on  this  principle,  her  captains  boldly 
searched  American  ships  on  the  high  seas,  and  im- 
pressed all  British-born  seamen  found  therein. 

This  course  was  unqualifiedly  condemned  by  the 
United  States,  whose  policy  it  has  always  been,  to 
regard  all  persons  of  foreign  birth  living  under  the 
protection  of  its  flag,  who  had  either  been  naturalized, 
or  had  taken  any  of  the  legal  steps  necessary  to  that 
end,  as  American  citizens,  and  as  such,  entitled  to  the 
protection  of  the  government.  The  case  against  Great 
Britain  was  aggravated  by  the  fact,  that,  in  many  in- 
stances, the  impressed  seamen  were  of  American  birth. 
Above  six  thousand  seamen  were  forcibly  taken  from 
American  ships  and  compelled  to  serve  on  British 
men-of-war,  within  the  period  of  a few  years. 


2G8 


GEOUGE  III. 


“ Decrees”  of  Napoleon  and  “ Orders 99  of  the  English 
Council.  The  war  feeling  in  the  United  States  was 
increased  by  the  " decrees  ” of  Napoleon  and  the 
"orders”  of  the  English  Council,  declaring,  respec- 
tively, the  ports  of  England  and  France  to  be  in  a state 
of  blockade.  This  was  particularly  injurious  to  the 
United  States,  since,  being  a neutral  power,  she  was,  to 
a considerable  extent,  engaged  to’ do  the  carrying  trade 
of  Europe.  Between  French  and  English  cruisers,  the 
commerce  of  the  United  States  was  well-nigh  swept 
from  the  seas.  Napoleon,  in  1811,  withdrew  the  appli- 
cation of  the  "decrees”  from  the  United  States,  making 
the  war  feeling  against  England  all  the  more  intense. 
Between  the  year  1807,  and  the  declaration  of  war  in 
1812,  it  has  been  computed  that  one  thousand  American 
merchant  ships  were  taken  by  British  cruisers. 

Declaration  of  War  by  the  United  States.  War 
was  declared  by  the  United  States,  June  19th,  1812. 
It  was  fought  chiefly  on  the  sea,  the  United  States 
gaining  many  signal  victories.  Privateers,  being  com- 
missioned in  large  numbers,  frequented  all  the  routes 
of  English  commerce,  and  gained  a rich  harvest  in  the 
capture  of  English  merchant  ships.  Operations  on 
the  land  were  limited  to  the  Canadian  frontier,  and  to 
descents  on  exposed  points  along  the  coast.  General 
Boss,  sailing  up  the  Chesapeake,  made  a sudden  raid 
on  the  capital,  and,  with  a vandalism  that  belonged  to  a 
by-gone  age,  burned  to  the  ground  most  of  the  public 
buildings. 

Battle  of  New  Orleans.  The  last  battle  of  the  war 
was  fought  at  New  Orleans  on  the  8th  of  January,  1815. 
The  British  under  Sir  Edward  Packenham  were  com- 


GEORGE  III. 


269 


pletcly  repulsed  by  the  Americans  under  General 
Jackson,  Packenham  himself  being  slain. 

Peace  of  Ghent.  It  was,  of  course,  unknown  to 
both  commanders,  that  fifteen  days  before,  on  the  24th 
of  December,  1814,  peace  had  been  made  at  Ghent. 
Although  the  treaty  of  peace  left  unsettled  the  ques- 
tions at  issue  between  the  two  countries,  English 
captains  never  afterwards  searched  American  vessels  to 
find  British  subjects,  and  a few  years  ago,  the  English 
government  formally  abandoned  the  whole  doctrine  of 
the  "right  of  search.”  During  the  greater  part  of  this 
reign,  William  Pitt,  second  son  of  the  Earl  of  Chat- 
ham, was  at  the  head  of  the  government. 

The  Regency.  During  the  last  nine  years  of  his  life, 
King  George  was  blind  and  insane,  and  the  Prince  of 
W ales  ruled  as  Prince  Regent.  Though  obstinate  and 
conservative,  George  III.  was  much  better  than  the 
other  kings  of  his  name.  The  simple,  homely,  familiar 
ways  of  "Farmer  George,”  as  he  was  called,  gained 
him  the  good  will  of  the  people,  and  the  great  misfor- 
tune that  clouded  his  later  years,  won  their  heartfelt 
sympathy. 

George  IV.,  1820  to  1830  — 10  years.  Brunswick. 

England  after  the  Napoleonic  Wars.  England 
emerged  from  the  wars  with  Napoleon  the  most 
powerful  nation  in  Europe.  During  this  long  and 
desperate  struggle,  nearly  all  the  European  nations 
had,  at  one  time  and  another,  been  drawn  or  forced  to 
the  side  of  England’s  foes,  and,  in  consequence,  their 
fleets  had,  one  after  another,  been  swept  away  by  the 
superior  navy  of  England,  so  that  her  supremacy  on 


270 


GEORGE  IV. 


the  sea,  first  achieved  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  was 
now  universally  conceded.  Isolated  from  the  nations 
of  the  continent,  her  own  soil  had  known  nothing  of 
the  desolations  that  war  had  brought  to  theirs.  Ilcr 
industries  had  not  only  remained  undisturbed,  while 
theirs  had  been  paralyzed,  but  they  had  been  forced  to 
an  unnatural  expansion,  bringing  unexampled  pros- 
perity to  her  capitalists.  On  the  other  hand,  the  return 
of  peace  caused  a re-action,  that  was  followed  by  a 
crisis  in  both  the  national  finances  and  the  national 
industries.  Manufacturing  establishments,  stimulated 
to  an  over-production  during  the  war,  could  not  at  once 
adapt  themselves  to  the  new  conditions  of  a state  of 
peace,  and  they  were  compelled  to  contract,  and,  in 
many  cases,  to  close,  operations  altogether.  Thousands 
of  operatives  in  all  the  manufacturing  districts  were 
thus  thrown  out  of  employment,  who,  having  laid  up 
nothing  during  the  time  of  prosperity,  were  now 
suddenly  reduced  to  want. 

The  disbandment  of  the  army  and  navy  forces  had 
released  multitudes  of  men,  many  of  whom  could  not 
find  the  employment  they  sought,  while  more  were 
restless  in  spirit  and  had  little  taste  for  the  quiet  pur- 
suits of  life.  Although  the  rates  for  the  poor  were 
every  where  largely  increased,  destitution  and  suffering 
were  everywhere  inevitable.  The  Napoleonic  wars  had 
greatly  increased  the  public  debt,  which  at  their  close 
amounted  to  £800,000,000,  and  the  people  were 
heavily  burdened  with  taxation.  The  necessaries  of 
life  had  reached  exorbitant  figures  during  these  wars, 
enriching  land  owners  and  large  dealers,  but  bearing 
1 eavily  on  the  poor. 


GEORGE  IV. 


271 


The  Corn  Law.  During  the  year  after  the  close  of 
the  Napoleouic  wars,  the  land  owners,  with  a policy 
as  short-sighted  as  it  was  selfish,  secured  the  passage 
of  a law  placing  such  a duty  on  corn  as  virtually  to 
prohibit  its  importation.  High  prices  were  thus  main- 
tained, especially  on  the  bread  of  the  poor,  after  their 
income  had  greatly  diminished  or  had  ceased  altogether. 
Idleness,  poverty,  and  suffering  produced  discontent 
and  incipient  rebellion,  but  this  only  brought  upon  the 
unhappy  people  the  strong  arm  of  the  law,  and  aggra- 
vated the  miseries  of  their  condition. 

Agitation  oil  the  Subject  of  Reform.  The  people 
attributed  their  distress  to  bad  legislation,  and  not 
wholly  without  cause,  and’  the  reined}",  in  their  minds, 
was  increased  political  power  on  the  part  of  the  masses. 
Then  began  an  agitation  on  the  subject  of  reform  in 
the  laws,  never  known  before  in  England.  The  active 
English  mind,  no  longer  engrossed  with  the  excitements 
of  foreign  war,  employed  itself  in  questions  of  domestic 
policy,  and  the  resources  of  the  ministry  and  statesmen 
of  England  were  taxed  to  the  utmost,  to  meet  the  social 
and  political  problems  that  constantly  presented  them- 
selves for  solution.  From  the  passage  of  the  Corn 
law,  in  1815,  to  the  present  time,  England  has  been 
the  arena  of  an  unintermitting  strife  on  the  subject  of 
reform.  Reform  has  been  the  all-engrossing  theme  at 
the  fireside  and  in  the  cabinet,  at  the  hustings  and  in 
legislative  halls.  Reform  and  Anti-Reform  have  been 
inscribed  on  party  banners,  and  have  been  the  issues  of 
party  politics.  The  period  embraced  in  the  last  three 
reigns,  those  of  George  IV.,  William  IV.,  and  Victoria, 
might  be  called  the  Era  of  Reform.  AVc  can  here  notice 


2 72 


GEORGE  IV, 


only  the  most  important  matters  that  have  successively 
agitated  the  public  mind,  and  the  leading  measures 
that  have  been  enacted,  tending  to  the  removal  of  class 
and  religious  distinctions,  to  the  equalization  of  civil 
and  political  rights,  and  especially,  to  the  amelioration 
of  the  condition  of  the  poor,  and  their  advancement  in 
the  scale  of  being.  If  the  progress  of  reform  has  been 
slow,  on  account  of  the  bitter  resistance  of  powerful 
conservative  elements,  it  has  also  been  sure.  No  essen- 
tial step  in  this  grand  march  of  the  English  people 
towards  the  ideal  of  all  just  government,  the  greatest 
good  to  the  greatest  number,  has  been  retraced.  Tem- 
porary checks  and  defeats  have  made  their  ultimate 
triumphs  all  the  more  complete. 

The  Repeal  of  the  Corporation  and  Test  Acts.  The 
Corporation  Act,  passed  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II., 
required  the  officers  of  corporations  or  boroughs  to 
conform  to  the  rites  of  the  restored  Episcopal  Church, 
and  was  specially  designed  to  effect  the  removal  of 
Puritans,  who  occupied  most  of  the  borough  offices. 

The  Test  Act,  passed  later  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.,  made  the  same  requirements  of  civil  and  military 
officers,  with  the  addition  of  the  Oath  of  Supremacy, 
and  was  enacted  at  a time  when  it  was  supposed  Charles 
was  scheming  to  restore  Romanism  to  England.  But  the 
perils  against  which  these  statutes  were,  designed  to 
guard,  had,  at  the  time  of  George  IV.,  long  since  passed 
away.  The  State  church  was  firmly  established,  and 
proscriptive  laws  on  account  of  religion  had  not  only 
become  needless,  but  they  were  a source  of  perpetual 


GEORGE  IV. 


273 


discontent.  After  much  agitation,  in  1828,  both  these 
Acts  were  repealed  in  their  most  odious  features. 

The  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill.  But  the  Catholics 
had  disabilities  more  irksome  than  those  just  mentioned. 
At  the  time  of  the  " Popish  plot  ” excitement,  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.,  Catholics  were  made  ineligible  to  Parlia- 
ment, and  although  this  plot  was  proved  at  the  time 
to  be  a pure  fabrication,  they  were  not  restored  to 
their  former  right  to  membership.  For  a century 
and  a half  they  continued  to  have  no  voice  in  the 
counsels  of  the  nation.  The  Irish  people  labored 
under  peculiar  hardships.  To  conciliate  them  at  the 
time  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  the  constitutional  union 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  had  been  effected.  In 
1801,  thirty  Irish  lords,  and  one  hundred  commoners 
were  admitted  to  the  English  Parliament.  But  this 
very  union  drew  in  its  train  a new  grievance,  that 
became  in  time  as  fruitful  of  discontent  as  the  old 
one.  Only  Protestants  could  sit  as  members  in  the 
Parliament  chambers.  It  is  difficult  to  say  which  was 
felt  to  be  the  greater  grievance  to  Catholic  Ireland,  no 
representation  or  a Protestant  representation.  There 
were  other  things  scarcely  less  trying  to  the  Irish 
people,  to  be  noticed  later.  Their  discontent  rose  to 
fever  height,  and  produced  repeated  outbreaks,  which 
were  trodden  out  in  blood.  Bill  after  bill  for  the  relief 
of  the  Irish  was  brought  up  in  Parliament  only  to  be 
voted  down. 

Daniel  (FConnell.  Associations,  in  which  almost 
every  Catholic  and  many  Protestants  became  enrolled, 
were  formed  throughout  Ireland  to  secure  the  repeal 
of  laws  excluding  Catholics  from  Parliament.  Daniel 


274 


GEORGE  IV. 


O’Connell,  an  eloquent  Irish  barrister,  the  acknowl- 
edged head  of  these  associations,  was  at  this  time  all 
but  supreme  in  his  power  over  the  Irish  people.  In 
1827,  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  from  the  County 
of  Clare,  but  wras  ineligible  on  account  of  his  religion. 
The  climax  to  Irish  endurance  was  reached,  when 
O’Connell  was  refused  the  seat  to  which  he  had  been 
elected,  and  Parliament  soon  came  to  see  that  there 
was  but  a choice  of  alternatives,  justice  to  Ireland,  or 
war  with  a united  and  a determined  people.  A bill 
was  accordingly  introduced  to  admit  Catholics  to  Par- 
liament. Even  Wellington,  long  the  opponent  of 
reform,  who  had  looked  calmly  on  death  in  many  a 
bloody  battle-field,  shrank  from  the  horrors  of  a 
religious  war  in  Ireland.  Said  the  Iron  Duke,  on 
moving  the  second  reading  of  the  bill,  "If  I could 
avoid,  by  any  sacrifice  whatever,  even  one  month  of 
civil  war  in  the  country  to  which  I am  attached,  I 
wrould  sacrifice  my  life  to  do  it.” 

In  a little  more  than  a month,  April  13th,  1829,  the 
bill,  having  passed  both  houses,  received  the  royal  sig- 
nature and  became  law.  Roman  Catholics  were  placed 
on  an  equality  with  Protestants,  except  that  they  re- 
mained ineligible  to  the  throne,  the  chancellorship, 
the  lord-lieutenancy  of  Ireland,  and  to  offices  in  Protest- 
ant Universities.  O’Connell  at  once  took  his  seat  in  the 
House  of  Commons. 

Navarino,  A.B.  1827.  In  the  early  part  of  the  reign 
of  George  IV.,  the  Greeks,  who  had  suffered  under 
Moslem  rule  for  more  than  three  centuries,  rose  in 
rebellion.  The  sailing  of  an  expedition  from  Egypt 
to  lay  waste  the  Morea,  and  to  carry  away  its  inhabi- 


GEORGE  IV. 


275 


tants  into  slavery,  caused  a coalition  of  England, 
France,  and  Russia  in  behalf  of  the  helpless  Greeks. 
The  allied  IVets,  entering  the  harbor  of  Navarino  in  the 
latter  part  of  1827,  annihilated  the  entire  Turkish  and 
Egyptian  navies.  Greece  was  made  an  independent 
kingdom,  and  Otho,  a Bavarian  prince,  was  placed  upon 
the  throne.  A touching  and  romantic  interest  is  con- 
nected with  the  struggle  of  the  Greeks  for  indepen- 
dence, on  account  of  its  association  with  Lord  Byron. 
The  unhappy  poet  devoted  his  fortune  and  the  last 
efforts  of  his  genius  to  the  cause  of  Greece.  On  its 
classic  soil,  and  in  its  service,  he  breathed  his  last. 

Character  of  George  IV.  George  the  Fourth  is  one 
of  the  most  uninteresting,  as  well  as  despicable,  sov- 
ereigns that  ever  sat  on  the  English  throne.  The 
time  had  gone  by  when  an  English  king  could  over- 
ride the  laws,  else  George  IV.  would  have  been  a 
tyrant.  He  threw  what  little  influence  he  possessed 
against  the  cause  of  reform,  retarding,  but  not  defeat- 
ing, its  progress.  H©  was  profligate  in  the  extreme,  and 
spent  most  of  his  time  in  the  company  of  the  worth- 
less. His  flatterers  called  him  "the  first  gentleman  in 
Europe,”  a title  that  rested  solely  on  his  possession  of 
a well-shaped  figure,  polished  manners,  and  exquisite 
taste  in  matters  of  dress.  Through  his  licentious  habits 
he  had  lost  the  respect  of  his  people,  while  his  relentless 
persecution  of  his  wdfe  had  excited  their  intense  and 
lasting  dislike.  He  had  married,  when  Prince  of 
Wales,  his  own  cousin,  the  Princess  Caroline  of  Bruns- 
wick. After  submitting  to  every  species  of  indignity 
from  her  husband,  Caroline  returned  to  her  home  on 
the  continent.  After  the  elevation  of  George  to 


27(5 


GEORGE  IV. 


the  throne,  a bill  was  introduced  into  Parliament  for 
the  divorce  of  the  crownless  queen,  but  so  intense 
was  public  feeling  against  the  king,  it  was  finally 
allowed  to  drop.  Queen  Caroline  died  in  about  a year, 
broken  down  with  shame  and  grief.  George  IV.  died 
in  1830,  leaving  no  heirs,  and  the  throne  descended  to 
his  brother  William. 

William  IV.,  1830  to  1837  — 7 years.  Brunswick. 

State  of  Feeling  in  England  at  the  Accession  of 

William.  The  brief  period  of  William’s  reign  was  one 
of  unprecedented  political  excitement.  The  question 
of  reform,  fairly  launched  upon  the  sea  of  English 
politics  during  the  preceding  reign,  became  the  exclu- 
sive object  of  public  attention.  During  the  first  year 
of  William’s  reign  a revolution  broke  out  in  France, 
that  excited  grave  apprehensions  in  England  as  well  as 
on  the  continent.  The  French  people  had  caught  the 
spirit  that  animated  the  English  masses,  and  were  call- 
ing loudly  for  reform.  The  French  ministry  sought  to 
crush  this  spirit  by  ordinances,  subverting  the  consti- 
tution of  the  country,  and  destroying  the  freedom  of 
the  press.  The  exasperated  Parisians  rose  at  once  in 
arms.  For  three  days  were  the  streets  of  the  capital 
the  scene  of  indescribable  confusion  and  carnage, 
when  the  government  troops  were  driven  from  the  city, 
and  the  king,  Charles  X.,  was  compelled  to  abdicate 
the  throne.  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans,  was" 
appointed  Lieutenant-General  of  the  kingdom.  For 
awhile,  the  tricolor,  the  symbol  of  French  republican- 
ism, floated  over  the  city  of  Paris  in  place  of  the  white 
flag  of  royalty,  but,  in  the  end  Louis  was  made  king 


WILLIAM  IV. 


277 


under  a libera l constitution.  A fe/crish  and  almost 
revolutionary  spirit  was  kindled  among  the  masses 
throughout  Europe  by  the  revolution  in  France.  In 
Brussels,  a rising  of  the  people  terminated  in  a sep- 
aration from  Holland,  and  the  founding  of  the  new 
kingdom  of  Belgium.  The  excitement  in  England, 
created  by  this  revolution,  happily  found  vent  in  the 
election  that  was  near  at  hand,  which  resulted  in  re- 
turning a House  of  Commons  overwhelmingly  liberal. 
The  conservative  Duke  of  Wellington  was  forced  to 
yield  his  place  as  Prime  Minister  to  Earl  Grey,  who  was 
in  sympathy  with  the  new  House.  We  are  now  brought 
to  the  consideration  of  another  of  those  great  statutes, 
that  stand  like  mile-stones  in  the  pathway  of  English 
progress,  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832. 

The  Reform  Bill  of  1832.  One  of  the  crying 
grievances  of  the  English  people  was  the  inequality  of 
representation  in  Parliament.  In  early  times  the  kings 
had  designated  the  towns  that  were  to  be  represented 
in  the  lower  house.  They  usually  selected  those  most 
important.  Towns  were  occasionally  added  to  the  list, 
sometimes  as  a matter  of  justice,  and  sometimes  as  a 
matter  of  favoritism.  There  was  no  law  or  basis  of 
representation.  In  the  course  of  time  a great  change 
came  over  the  face  of  England.  The  growth  of  manu- 
factures had  made  new  centres  of  population.  Thriv- 
ing towns  and  cities,  such  as  Birmingham,  Leeds,  and 
Sheffield,  had  sprung  up  in  the  wilderness.  On  the 
other  hand,  flourishing  towns  had  dwindled  into  mere 
hamlets,  and  in  some  cases  had  disappeared  altogether. 
But  through  all  this  shifting  of  the  population,  there 
had  been  comparatively  few  changes  in  the  representa- 


278 


WILLIAM  IV. 


tion  in  Parliament.  Old  Sarum,  without  a house 
within  its  limits,  continued  to  send  two  representa- 
tives to  every  Parliament,  while  Birmingham,  a great 
busy  hive  of  industry,  remained  entirely  unrepre- 
sented. These  "rotten”  or  "pocket”  boroughs,  as  the 
towns  were  called,  that  had  representation,  but  little  or 
no  constituency,  were  under  the  control  of  noblemen, 
who  either  selected  the  persons  to  represent  them,  or 
offered  the  places  for  sale.  A Reform  Bill  was  intro- 
duced into  Parliament  early  in  1831,  designed  to  re- 
adjust and  equalize  the  system  of  representation.  It 
passed  the  House  of  Commons  after  a prolonged  dis- 
cussion, but  was  defeated  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The 
excitement  in  England  became  intense.  Biots  and 
conflagrations  constantly  disturbed  the  peace  of  the 
kingdom.  The  conservative  Lords  becoming  alarmed 
at  the  temper  of  the  people,  which  threatened  the  most 
serious  results,  followed  the  example  of  the  liberal 
Commons,  and  passed  the  Reform  Bill  at  their  next 
session  in  1832.  Fifty-six  "pocket”  boroughs,  having 
one  hundred  and  twelve  representatives,  were  dis- 
franchised, while  thirty  more  were  allowed  each  a single 
representative,  making  a total  reduction  of  one  hun- 
dred and  forty -two  members.  The  vacant  scats  were 
distributed  among  forty-two  large  and  flourishing 
towns,  that  had  previously  no  representation. 

Results  of  Reform  Legislation.  Besides  leading  to 
immense  material  benefit  to  the  people,  the  Reform 
Bill  of  1832  conferred  on  the  liberal  element  a powrer 
it  had  never  known  before.  The  cause  of  reform 
gained  a prestige  that  made  other  progressive  move- 
ments easy  and  rapid.  For  the  first  time,  the  manu- 


WILLIAM  IV. 


279 


factoring  and  general  business  interests  had  able  and 
adequate  representation  in  Parliament. 

Hitherto,  the  land-holders  had  moulded  legislation  to 
meet  their  peculiar  wants.  Now,  measures  began  to  be 
devised  and  framed  into  statutes,  for  the  development 
of  commerce  and  manufactures,  making  them,  in 
time,  the  leading  interests  of  the  British  people.  As 
an  illustration  of  the  progress  made,  it  may  be  stated, 
that,  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  William  IV., 
Great  Britain  had  three  hundred  and  fifteen  steam- 
vessels  with  a tonnage  of  33,441.  At  its  close  she  had 
six  hundred  steam-vessels  with  a tonnage  of  67,969. 
At  its  beginning  there  was  but  a single  railway  line  of 
importance  on  the  island.  At  its  close  all  the  great 
manufacturing  centres  and  mining  districts  had  rail- 
road facilities  for  the  transportation  of  goods  and  pas- 
sengers to  the  metropolis  and  leading  seaports. 

Abolition  of  Slavery  in  the  Colonies.  The  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  in  the  colonies  was  one  of  the  subjects 
that  had  agitated  the  public  mind.  Wilberforce  and 
other  philanthropists  had  labored  for  nearly  forty 
years  in  the  cause  of  emancipation.  In  1833,  a bill  was 
introduced  into  Parliament,  giving  freedom  to  all  the 
slaves  in  the  British  colonies,  and  appropriating  £20,- 
000,000  as  compensation  to  the  planters.  It  passed 
without  serious  opposition,  removing  one  of  the  foul- 
est stains  that  ever  disgraced  a civilized  nation. 

Character  of  William  IT.  William  IV.  was  called  the 
" Sailor  King,”  from  his  early  connection  with  the  Eng- 
lish navy.  He  was  a worthy  man  and  a just  and  able 
ruler.  He  was  in  hearty  sympathy  with  the  reform 
movements  of  the  day,  and  for  this  irason  was  held  in 


280 


WILLIAM  IV. 


high  esteem  among  the  people.  The  careless,  easy, 
open  manners  of  the  sailor  clung  to  him  to  the  last, 
increasing  still  more  his  popularity  among  the  English 
masses.  He  had  long  been  afflicted  with  hay  fever. 
In  1837,  his  disease  assumed  a more  aggravated  form, 
and  he  sank  rapidly  under  its  attacks,  and  died  on  the 
18th  of  June,  in  the  seventy-second  year  of  his  age. 

Victoria,  1837.  Brunswick. 

Reform  Legislation  in  the  Reign  of  Victoria. 

William  IV.  died  without  heirs,  leaving  the  crown  to 
his  niece,  Alexandrina  Victoria.  As  the  Salic  law  pre- 
vailed in  Hanover,  forbidding  female  succession,  that 
kingdom  reverted,  at  once,  to  Ernest,  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, the  nearest  male  heir  of  the  House  of  Bruns- 
wick. Hanover  had  been  a useless  and  an  expensive 
appendage  of  the  British  empire  since  the  accession  of 
George  I.,  and  its  return  to  the  condition  of  an  inde- 
pendent state  was  not  regretted  by  the  English  people. 
The  legislation  of  this  reign  has  been  characterized 
even  more  than  that  of  its  predecessors  by  the  spirit 
of  progress.  We  shall  not  undertake  so  much  as  to 
name  all  the  unequal  and  oppressive  statutes  and  prac- 
tices, the  relics  of  less  civilized  ages,  which  have  been 
swept  away  forever,  nor  all  the  measures  that  have 
been  devised  to  perfect  the  liberties  and  enlarge  the 
opportunities  of  the  English  people.  "Reform  Bills, ” 
the  matured  products  of  an  enlightened  statesmanship, 
have  followed  each  other  in  rapid  succession.  Under 
the  inspiration  and  guidance  of  such  men  as  Wilber- 
force,  Brougham,  Cobden,  and  Bright,  the  reform  move- 
ments have  advanced  with  rapid  strides.  The  English 


VICTORIA. 


281 


government,  at  first  following  somewhat  slowly  and 
reluctantly  in  the  footsteps  of  an  advancing  public  sen- 
timent, now  leads  the  van  in  the  grand  march  of  im- 
provement. Not  only  has  it  secured  to  the  English 
people,  in  a broad  and  general  sense,  the  enjoyment 
of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  but  it  has  brought  within 
the  scope  of  its  inquiry  the  minutest  details  of  their 
condition.  And  not  alone  at  home,  but  to  the  re- 
motest limits  of  ail  empire  " upon  which  the  sun  never 
sets,”  has  a beneficent  legislation  extended  a hand  of 
helpfulness  to  British  subjects. 

Repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws.  Although  the  Corn  laws, 
passed  in  1815,  had  undergone  repeated  changes,  they 
still  fettered  English  commerce  and  remained  an  op- 
pressive burden  to  the  poor.  The  discontent  of  the 
people  found  expression,  in  1839,  in  an  organization, 
called  " The  Anti-Corn-Law  League,”  designed  to  se- 
cure the  repeal  of  all  duties  on  breadstuffs. 

At  the  head  of  this  League  stood  Richard  Cobden 
and  John  Bright,  two  of  England’s  noblest  sons.  The 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  a repeal  of  the  Corn  laws 
seemed  almost  insuperable.  Notwithstanding  the  in- 
creased representation  of  the  manufacturing  and  com- 
mercial classes  in  Parliament,  nine-tenths  of  the  mem- 
bers still  represented  the  landed  interests,  and  held 
firmly  to  a high  tariff  on  imported  grain.  They 
argued  that  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  laws  would  destroy 
the  profits  of  agriculture,  at  that  time  the  leading  in- 
terest ; that  the  land  would  cease  to  be  cultivated  and 
return  to  a state  of  wilderness,  and  that  the  condition 
of  the  rural  population,  dependent,  as  they  were,  on 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  would  become  deplorable. 


282 


VICTORIA. 


The  Reform  League  directed  its  efforts  not  so  much 
to  the  conversion  of  members  of  Parliament,  as  to  the 
creation  of  a public  sentiment  in  favor  of  free  trade, 
and  so  to  a gradual  change  in  the  complexion  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  Public  speakers  were  sent  into 
all  the  rural  districts,  where  they  addressed  vast  as- 
semblies of  the  working  people  in  behalf  of  their  favor- 
ite doctrine.  Papers  and  pamphlets,  advocating  the 
same  views,  were  scattered  all  over  England.  The 
result  of  efforts  so  persistent  and  systematic  may 
easily  be  anticipated.  The  great  change  that  took 
place  even  among  the  people  of  the  agricultural  dis- 
tricts, was  soon  perceptible  in  the  increasing  number 
of  free  traders  elected  to  Parliament.  But  the  Corn 
League  met  unexpected  opposition  from  another  and 
an  older  organization,  also  devoted  to  the  interests  of 
reform. 

The  Chartists.  No  sooner  had  the  excitement  at- 
tending the  reform  movement  of  1832  subsided,  than 
a new  agitation  began  to  occupy  public  attention.  It 
finally  culminated,  in  1838,  in  an  organization  bearing 
the  name  of  ” The  Chartists.”  Its  principles  and 
objects  were  embodied  in  a document  called”  The  Peo- 
ple’s Charter,”  under  six  distinct  heads  : — 1st.  Uni- 
versal suffrage.  2d.  Vote  by  ballot.  3d.  Annual 
Parliaments.  4th.  Payment  of  members  of  Parlia- 
ment. 5th.  Abolition  of  the  property  qualification. 
6th.  Equal  electoral  districts.  At  the  rise  of  the 
” Anti-Corn-Law  League,”  the  Chartists  sought  to 
unite  the  forces  of  the  two  movements,  but  the  leaders 
of  the  League  refused  to  adopt  the  six  articles  of  the 
Chartists,  thinking  it  wiser  to  direct  their  efforts  to  the 


VICTORIA. 


283 


accomplishment  of  the  single  end  they  had  in  view  — 
the  repeal  of  the  Corn  laws.  The  Chartists,  under  the 
lead  of  Daniel  O’Connell,  then  threw  their  influence 
against  the  cause  of  the  League.  In  spite  of  all  ob- 
stacles the  latter  organization  carried  its  point.  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  who  was  at  the  head  of  a conservative 
ministry,  became  a convert  to  the  doctrine  of  free 
trade,  and  a bill  for  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  laws  passed 
through  both  Houses  in  1846.  But  the  complete  extinc- 
tion of  duties  on  breadstuffs  did  not  take  place  till 
1849.  The  same  year  the  famous  Navigation  laws, 
originally  passed  during  the  Commonwealth,  in  1651, 
and  amended  from  time  to  time,  were  entirely  repealed, 
and  thus  the  last  obstacle  to  trade  with  England  was 
removed.  The  predictions  of  disaster  to  the  agricul- 
tural interests  and  to  the  rural  population,  so  freely 
made  during  the  progress  of  the  campaign,  were  not 
realized.  Since  that  day  "free  trade  ” — the  right  to 
buy  in  the  cheapest,  and  to  sell  in  the  dearest,  market 
— has  been  the  watchword  in  England. 

The  Chartists  had  divided  into  two  wings,  the  radi- 
cal and  the  conservative.  The  excesses  of  the  radical 
wing,  and  its  threats  to  overthrow  the  government  and 
to  establish  a Republic,  unless  "The  People’s  Charter” 
were  adopted,  had  brought  the  whole  movement  into 
disrepute.  Little  was  heard  of  it  again  until  the  year 
1848,  when  another  French  revolution  disturbed  the 
peace  of  Europe.  Its  effect  in  England  was  an  immense 
revival  of  Chartism.  Petitions  were  industriously 
circulated  for  the  adoption  of  " The  People’s  Charter  ” 
by  parliament.  These  petitions,  claiming  to  have 
5,700,000  signatures,  were  to  be  carried  to  the  House 


284 


VICTORIA. 


of  Commons,  at  the  head  of  a procession  of  half  a 
million  persons.  The  possibility  that  a revolution 
might  be  attempted,  similar  to  that  which  had  just 
taken  place  in  France,  led  the  government  to  make  the 
most  gigantic  preparations  to  meet  it.  The  procession 
was  declared  to  be  illegal  and  forbidden  to  take  place. 
Special  constables,  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  and 
seventy  thousand,  were  sworn  in,  among  whom  was 
Prince  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who  was  soon  to 
accomplish  another  revolution  in  France,  and  to  place 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  restored  Empire.  All  avail- 
able troops  were  brought  to  the  capital  and  placed 
under  the  command  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  The 
preparations  of  the  government  terrified  the  Chartists, 
and  on  the  day  appointed  for  their  grand  demonstra- 
tion only  thirty  thousand  assembled  at  the  rendezvous 
on  Kennington  Common.  No  procession  was  attempted 
and  the  monstrous  petition  was  wheeled  to  the  House 
of  Commons  and  respectfully  presented  by  Feargus 
O’Connor,  the  Chartist  leader.  A careful  examination 
of  its  contents  discovered  that  there  were  less  than 
two,  instead  of  more  than  five,  million  signatures,  and 
a large  number  of  these  were  found  to  be  spurious. 
From  this  moment  Chartism,  convicted  of  fraud,  and 
branded  as  revolutionary,  fell  into  public  contempt,  and 
the  whole  Chartist  organization  speedily  dissolved. 
But  its  elements,  re-organized,  and  carrying  forward  the 
work  of  reform  in  a less  odious  manner,  have  partially 
accomplished  the  objects  of  " The  People’s  Charter/'' 
The  property  qualifications  have  been  nearly  abol- 
ished, the  right  of  suffrage  made  almost  universal,  and 
the  secret  ballot  substituted  for  open  voting.  A bill, 


VICTORIA  • 


285 


passed  in  1858,  modified  the  oath  required  of  Jews, 
making  them  eligible  to  Parliament. 

The  Disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church.  The 

Catholic  Emancipation  Bill  had  done  much  towards  the 
pacification  of  Ireland.  Of  the  grievances  still  re- 
maining, the  requirements  of  the  law  in  regard  to  the 
established,  or  Anglican,  church,  were  perhaps  the  most 
exasperating  to  the  Irish  people.  The  communicants 
of  this  church  numbered  about  one-eighth  of  the  pop- 
ulation, those  of  the  various  dissenting  bodies  some- 
what less,  while  the  Roman  Catholic  church  embraced 
within  its  pale  the  rest,  somewhat  more  than  six-eighths 
of  the  entire  population.  Besides  supporting  their 
own  worship,  the  Catholics  were  compelled  to  pay  cer- 
tain specific  tithes,  to  support  the  worship  of  the  An- 
glican church.  Although  all  the  temporalities  of  the 
church,  amounting  to  £16,000,000,  with  an  income  of 
nearly  £1,000,000,  were  in  the  hands  of  the  Anglican 
clergy,  the  very  bread  was  often  taken  from  the  pov- 
erty-stricken hovel  of  the  delinquent  Irish  Catholic,  or 
his  solitary  cow  driven  away,  and  " the  wolf  left  at  his 
door,”  that  God  might  be  worshiped  in  Ireland  after 
the  established  manner.  We  cannot  wonder  that  the 
Irishman,  as  he  saw  his  hungry  children  gather  about 
the  scanty  board,  sometimes  turned,  in  rage  or  despair, 
with  a murderous  purpose,  upon  the  exacting  tax-gath- 
erer, or  that  violence  and  misery  filled  the  beautiful, 
but  misgoverned,  land. 

In  1869,  during  the  Gladstone  ministry,  a bill  was 
introduced  into  Parliament  to  disestablish  the  Irish 
church.  This  bill  placed  all  the  religious  sects  on  the 
same  level,  making  them  alike  dependent  on  the  vol- 


286 


VICTORIA. 


untary  contributions  of  the  people  for  their  support. 
It  passed  the  House  of  Commons  by  a large  majority. 
In  the  House  of  Lords,  though  denounced  as  " the 
most  revolutionary  measure  ever  submitted  to  Parlia- 
ment since  the  Reformation,”  it  also  received  a ma- 
jority of  the  votes  cast  and  became  law. 

The  Irish  Land  Bill.  But  the  measure  best  calcu- 
lated to  give  peace  and  prosperity  to  Ireland  was 
termed  the  " Irish  Land  Bill.”  The  rebellions  and  con- 
fiscations of  times  past  had  placed  most  of  the  land  in 
the  hands  of  a few  proprietors.  The  great  estates 
were  divided  into  small  farms  and  rented  to  the  Irish 
people,  the  greater  part  of  whom  were  dependent  on 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil  for  a livelihood.  Being  mere 
tenants  at  will  of  the  great  proprietors,  and  so,  liable, 
at  any  moment,  to  be  turned  out  of  their  homes,  the 
Irish  had  neither  pride  nor  interest  in  making  perma- 
nent improvements,  such  as  the  erection  of  new  build- 
ings, or  the  reclamation  of  waste  lands.  The  Irish 
Land  Bill  gave  the  tenant  a virtual  ownership  of  the 
farm  which  he  occupied.  If  compelled  to  vacate,  he 
was  allowed,  as  damages,  the  value  of  all  the  perma- 
nent improvements  which  he  had  made.  Under  the 
operations  of  this  bill  the  Irish  people  will,  in  time,  re- 
turn to  the  full  ownership  of  the  lands,  of  which  they 
were  so  unjustly  deprived. 

The  Education  Bill.  The  same  Parliament  passed 
a measure,  establishing  a national  system  of  public 
schools.  It  resembled,  in  many  respects,  the  New 
England  system,  having  local  school  boards,  and  fur- 
nishing all  needed  help  to  indigent  children.  The 
necessity  of  legislative  action  on  a subject  so  vital 


VICTORIA. 


287 


to  the  welfare  of  the  nation  was  made  apparent  during 
the  consideration  of  the  bill.  An  investigation  showed 
that  two-thirds  of  the  children  of  England  were  utterly 
destitute  of  school  privileges.  Of  83,000  children  in 
Birmingham,  only  26,000  attended  school.  Of  90,000 
in  Liverpool,  but  30,000  had  school  advantages.  The 
Education  Bill  was  warmly  supported  by  men  of  both 
parties,  and  became  law  on  the  22d  of  July,  1870. 
Under  the  direction  of  boards  of  education,  schools 
were  speedily  established  in  all  parts  of  England,  and 
to-day,  except  in  some  of  the  more  sparsely  settled 
districts,  every  child  in  England  can  receive  the  rudi- 
ments of  an  English  education. 

The  Foreign  Policy.  The  foreign  policy  of  this 
reign  has,  on  the  whole,  been  peaceful.  Its  wars  have 
been  distant,  and,  for  the  most  part,  unimportant. 
They  have  been  waged  chiefly  in  Asia  and  Africa.  A 
useless  war  with  Afghanistan,  in  1839,  grew  out  of 
jealousy  of  the  designs  of  Russia  in  Asia.  A war  was 
waged  with  Abyssinia  in  1867  to  effect  the  release  of 
English  subjects,  held  in  captivity  by  Emperor  Theo- 
dore. 

War  with  Egypt.  In  1840,  the  Pasha  of  Egypt 
threw  off*  the  Turkish  yoke.  He  entered  Asia  at  the 
head  of  a large  army,  for  the  purpose  of  detaching 
Syria  from  the  Ottoman  empire.  The  Sultan,  unable 
to  rescue  his  Asiatic  dominions  from  the  grasp  of  the 
warlike  Pasha,  appealed  to  Russia,  England,  and 
France  for  help.  France,  though  inclined  to  aid  the 
Pasha,  remained  neutral,  while  Russia  and  England 
united  to  preserve  the  integrity  of  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire. Their  combined  fleets,  under  the  command  of 


288 


VICTORIA. 


Commodore  Napier,  bombarded  the  strongly  fortified 
town  of  Acre,  the  key  of  all  Syria,  and  compelled  its 
surrender  in  three  hours.  The  appearance  of  the  allied 
lleet  before  Alexandria  forced  the  rebellious  Pasha  to 
sue  for  peace.  But  the  treaty  that  followed  was  more 
favorable  to  Egypt  than  to  Turkey,  for  it  left  the 
Pasha  only  a nominal  subject  of  the  Ottoman  Porte, 
and  the  Pashalic  of  Egypt  was  made  the  inheritance 
of  his  family.  Syria,  that  under  the  brief  but  enlight- 
ened rule  of  the  Pasha  had  entered  upon  a new  career 
of  peace  and  prosperity,  was  left  to  groan  under  the 
iron  heel  of  the  Moslem  power. 

Wars  with  China.  A shameful  war  was  waged  with 
China  to  force  upon  her  the  trade  in  opium.  The  Em- 
peror of  China,  seeing  the  deadly  effects  of  the  poison- 
ous drug  upon  his  people,  forbade  its  importation.  The 
English  merchants,  unwilling  to  give  up  the  profitable 
trade,  and  having  resorted  to  smuggling,  were  impris- 
oned by  the  Chinese  government,  and  whole  cargoes 
of  opium  were  seized  and  destroyed.  War  was  declared 
by  the  British  government  in  1840.  The  surrender  of 
Canton  to  a British  army,  and  the  siege  of  Nankin, 
forced  the  Emperor  to  submit.  The  cession  of  Hong 
Kong  to  the  British,  and  the  opening  of  five  principal 
ports  to  commerce,  were  the  results.  The  renewal  of 
war  in  1856,  on  account  of  an  outrage  to  a vessel 
sailing  under  British  colors,  resulted  in  a treaty,  open- 
ing all  China  both  to  merchants  and  to  missionaries. 

The  Balance  of  Power.  In  his  "Law  of  Nations,” 
Yattel  thus  defines  the  expression  "balance  of  power”  : 
* By  this  balance  is  to  be  understood  such  a disposition 
of  things,  as  that  no  one  potentate  or  state  shall  be 


VICTORIA. 


289 


able  absolutely  to  predominate  and  to  prescribe  to  the 
others.”  The  mere  principle  of  an  alliance  among 
states  exposed  to  a common  danger  is  as  old  as  the 
existence  of  states  themselves ; but  the  use  of  this 
principle  in  ancient  times  was  only  occasional  or  acci- 
dental. Its  adoption  by  any  number  of  states  as  a 
definite  and  permanent  principle  of  action  is  compar- 
atively modern.  The  states  of  Greece  often  combined 
against  some  one  of  their  number,  that  seemed  to  be 
attaining  to  a power  dangerous  to  the  rest.  The  coalitions 
against  the  occupation  of  Italy  by  the  French  under 
Charles  VIII.,  and  against  the  ambitious  schemes  of 
Ferdinand  II.  of  Germany,  the  repeated  alliances  to 
repel  the  aggressions  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  and 
the  wars  inspired  by  the  vaulting  ambition  of  Napoleon, 
are  all  illustrations  of  its  use  in  modern  Europe. 

After  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  the  idea 
of  a permanent  organization  of  powers  to  maintain  the 
established  equilibrium  in  Europe  took  definite  shape. 
The  five  great  powers  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Russia, 
Prussia,  and  Austria,  constituted  themselves  a standing 
tribunal  to  preserve  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe. 
From  that  time  to  the  present,  this  colossal  tribunal 
has  dominated  over  the  entire  continent,  and,  as  a result, 
comparatively  few  changes  have  taken  place  in  territo- 
rial lines.  It  has  operated  not  only  to  prevent  the 
indue  expansion  of  any  one  state,  but  also  to  break  up 
empires  whose  overshadowing  power  made  them  dan- 
gerous to  the  rest.  The  partition  of  the  Spanish  empire, 
after  the  death  of  Charles  II.,  is  an  illustration  of  its 
practical  application  in  this  direction.  An  attempt  was 
made  in  a congress  at  Vienna,  in  1853,  to  obtain  a vote 


290 


VICTORIA. 


to  restore  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  on  the  plea,  that  its 
dismemberment  had  disturbed  the  balance  of  power 
in  Europe.  The  opposition  of  Prussia  and  Austria, 
each  of  whom  possessed  a portion  of  the  dismembered 
kingdom,  defeated  the  project.  But  the  chief  value  of 
this  principle  lies  in  the  security  which  it  gives  to  the 
smaller  and  weaker  states,  preventing  their  absorption 
by  their  more  powerful  neighbors.  It  shielded  the 
little  Dutch  Republic  from  the  ambitious  designs  of  the 
most  powerful  monarch  of  his  time,  Louis  XIY.  It 
has  availed  thus  far  to  preserve  the  integrity  of  the 
Turkish  empire  against  the  aggressions  of  Russia,  whose 
chief  ambition  is  the  possession  of  Constantinople. 

The  Crimean  War.  In  1853,  Russia  invaded  Mol- 
davia and  Wallachia,  the  upper  Danubian  provinces  of 
Turkey.  This  was  declared  by  a congress  of  nations 
at  Vienna,  to  be  a violation  of  the  balance  of  power  in 
Europe.  Upon  the  refusal  of  Russia  to  withdraw  from 
the  invaded  territory,  England  and  France  sent  their 
combined  fleets  to  the  Black  and  Baltic  Seas.  The 
effort  to  reach  St.  Petersburg  being  defeated  by  the 
strength  of  the  fortifications  at  Cronstadt,  the  allies 
concentrated  their  forces  on  the  Crimea,  and  laid  siege 
to  Sebastopol,  the  great  stronghold  of  Russia  on  the 
Black  Sea.  The  allied  armies  landed  near  the  town  of 
Eupatoria,  the  14th  of  September,  1854,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  9th  of  September,  1855,  that  they  occupied 
the  deserted  fortifications  of  Sebastopol.  We  cannot 
dwell  on  the  painful  and  protracted  siege.  To  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  soldiers,  insufficiently  provided  with 
food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  for  a Russian  winter,  were 
added  the  horrors  of  a wasting  pestilence  rendered  all 


VICTORIA. 


291 


the  more  fatal  by  a lack  of  medical  stores.  About 
eighteen  thousand  British  soldiers  died  of  disease  during 
the  siege,  while  only  four  thousand  perished  through 
the  casualties  of  war.  But  the  gloomy  picture  is  illu- 
mined by  a heroism  more  lofty  than  that  of  arms.  A 
band  of  noble  women,  under  the  charge  of  Florence 
Nightingale,  left  the  comforts  of  their  English  homes, 
to  minister  to  the  wants  of  their  sick  and  wounded 
countrymen  in  the  plague-stricken  camp  on  the  Crimea. 

The  passage  of  the  Alma, — the  "Charge  of  the  Light 
Brigade  ” at  Balaklava,  — the  repulse  of  the  Russians  at 
Inkermann, — and  the  capture  of  the  Malakoff  Tower, — 
were  the  most  interesting  events  of  the  war.  The 
occupation  of  the  Malakoff  led  to  the  fall  of  Sebas- 
topol, and  forced  the  Czar  of  all  the  Russias  to  sue  for 
peace.  By  the  treaty  that  followed,  Russia  consented 
to  abandon  all  control  over  Moldavia,  Wallachia,  and 
Servia,  to  relinquish  her  claims  to  control  the  mouths 
of  the  Danube,  to  dismantle  the  fortifications  of  Sebas- 
topol, and  to  maintain  no  fleet  and  no  naval  station  in 
the  Black  Sea.  A few  small  armed  vessels  were  allowed 
the  principal  nations,  in  the  Black  Sea,  for  the  protection 
of  commerce,  which  was  made  free  to  all  nations. 

The  Sepoy  Rebellion.  British  India  had  gradually 
extended  its  boundaries  to  the  Himalayas  on  the  north, 
and  to  the  Indus  on  the  west.  There  was  but  a handful 
of  English  soldiers  in  the  whole  of  this  vast  empire, 
the  garrisons  in  the  different  departments  being  com- 
posed chiefly  of  native  soldiers,  called  Sepoys,  with 
English  officers. 


292 


VICTORIA. 


The  government  had  decided  to  supply  their  Indian 
troops  with  an  improved  rifle  using  a greased  cartridge 
whose  end  required  to  be  bitten  oft'  in  loading.  The 
fat  of  cows  or  swine  is  an  abomination  to  a Mahometan 
or  a Hindoo,  and  the  Sepoys,  imagining  that  the  gov- 
ernment was  seeking  to  entrap  them  into  Christianity 
by  requiring  them  to  use  a greased  cartridge,  began  to 
revolt.  But  there  was  another  cause  of  revolt,  a deep- 
seated  disaffection  on  the  part  of  the  natives,  growing 
out  of  the  extortion  practised  by  English  officials. 
From  the  time  of  Warren  Hastings  * to  the  breaking 
out  of  the  revolt,  the  English  had  made  office  in  India 
an  avenue  to  wealth,  and  the  long  smothered  resent- 
ment of  the  natives  was  ready  to  burst  forth  on  the 
first  occasion.  The  first  movement  of  the  revolt  oc- 
curred at  Meerut,  in  Bengal,  May  10,  1857.  The  gar- 
risons in  the  different  districts  following  the  example 
of  that  at  Meerut,  all  India  was  soon  in  a state  of 
insurrection.  Over  the  atrocities  perpetrated  on  Eng- 
lish residents,  and  especially  on  helpless  women  and 
children,  we  must  draw  the  veil.  Indian  soldiers, 
hitherto  their  trusted  and  faithful  protectors,  were  sud- 
denly transformed  into  merciless  fiends. 

Havelock  and  the  Relief  of  Lucknow.  Cawnpore 
on  the  borders,  and  Lucknow  in  the  interior,  of  Oude, 
garrisoned  by  a small  number  of  British  soldiers,  were 

* Warren  Hastings  was  a man  of  marked  ability.  Originally  a clerk  in  the 
employ  of  the  East  India  Company,  he  rose  in  1774  to  the  position  of  Governor 
General.  He  came  to  the  government  of  India  at  a time  of  great  danger.  The 
French  in  alliance  with  native  chiefs  renewed  the  struggle  for  the  possession 
of  the  Carnatic.  With  a skill  and  vigor  that  remind  us  of  Robert  Clive,  Hast- 
ings not  only  re-established  the  English  authority,  but  he  also  greatly  extended 
the  English  dominion.  His  administration  was  as  unscrupulous  as  it  was  able , 
and  on  his  return  to  England  he  was  impeached  for  cruelty  and  extortion. 
His  trial  lasted  from  178S  to  1795,  and  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  on  record. 


VICTORIA. 


293 


besieged  by  a great  multitude  of  savage  natives.  Gen- 
eral Havelock,  with  a small  force,  of  whom  only  fourteen 
hundred  were  English,  pressed  bravely  forward  to  re- 
lieve the  beleaguered  towns.  lie  encountered  the  Indian 
hordes  under  Nana  Sahib  (an  enlightened  and  hitherto 
friendly  chief,  but  now  the  most  lierce  and  bloodthirsty 
of  the  rebels)  in  battle  after  battle.  Though  victorious, 
lie  was  every  day  getting  deeper  into  the  enemy’s 
country,  and  his  little  force  was  slowly  melting  away. 
At  last  he  reached  Cawnpore  only  to  learn  that  its  entire 
English  population  had  been  massacred.  lie  started 
at  once  for  Lucknow,  fearing  lest  he  should  be  too  late 
to  save  its  inhabitants  from  a like  fate.  Constantly 
assailed  on  every  side  by  a host  of  fierce,  swarthy  foes, 
and  exposed  to  the  burning  rays  of  a tropical  sun,  the 
heroic  little  band  pressed  bravely  on  and  finally  reached 
their  destination.  . They  found  the  English  shut  up  in 
the  Residency,  which  had  been  hastily  fortified  at  the 
beginning  of  the  revolt.  Havelock  unable  to  fight  his 
way  out,  encumbered  with  women  and  children,  could 
only  maintain  himself  within  the  poor  defences  of  the 
Residency,  and  wait  for  help. 

Campbell  and  the  Second  Relief  of  Lucknow.  The 
English  Government  hurried  re-enforcements,  as  fast  as 
possible,  to  the  theatre  of  war.  Sir  Colin  Campbell 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  army.  Taking  an  ample 
force,  the  gallant  Scotchman  rapidly  advanced  to  the 
second  relief  of  Lucknow.  He  had  need  to  hurry. 
Exposed  to  the  incessant  fire  of  the  enemy,  whose  shot 
pierced  every  part  of  them  retreat  except  the  cellars, 
where  the  women  and  children  found  shelter,  the  Eng- 
lish soldiers  at  Lucknow  were  falling  fast.  If  we  can 


294 


VICTORIA. 


but  feebly  imagine  the  sufferings  and  the  horrors  of 
the  siege,  as  month  after  month  rolled  away  without  a 
sign  of  succor,  still  less  can  we  realize  what  must  have 
been  their  emotions,  when  they  heard,  beyond  the  circle 
of  their  yelling,  blood-thirsty  foes,  the  distant  sound  of 
the  Highland  music,  and,  as  it  came  nearer,  they  caught 
the  notes  of  that  old  familiar  air,  "The  Campbells 
are  coming  !”  Lucknow  was  relieved  on  the  17th  of 
November,  1857.  Though  far  inferior  to  the  rebels  in 
number,  Campbell  conducted  the  survivers  of  the  terri- 
ble siege  to  a place  of  safety.  But  the  noble  Havelpck, 
who  had  borne  up  under  incessant  toil  and  exposure 
so  long  as  danger  threatened  the  helpless  people  under 
his  charge,  quickly  sickened  and  died,  when  the  crisis 
had  passed ; and  another  name  was  added  to  the  Brit- 
ish roll  of  honor.  The  prompt  and  efficient  measures 
of  the  government  were  crowned  with  abundant  success. 
The  English  authority  was  re-established  more  firmly 
than  ever  in  all  the  revolted  districts.  An  important 
and  needed  change  was  made  in  the  transfer  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  India,  from  the  Company,  to  the  Crown. 
The  Queen  has  since  been  made  Empress  of  India, 
which  she  governs  through  a Viceroy  aided  by  a Coun- 
cil of  five  members. 

The  Affair  of  the  Trent.  In  1861,  a civil  war  broke 
out  in  the  United  States,  that  early  threatened  to  involve 
that  country  in  another  war  with  Great  Britain.  The 
revolted  states  organized  a separate  republic,  under  the 
name  of  "The  Confederate  States  of  America.”  Two 
commissioners,  Mason  and  Slidell,  were  appointed  to 
advance  the  Confederate  interests  at  London  and  Paris. 
They  succeeded  in  running  the  blockade,  and  reaching 


VICTORIA. 


295 


Havana,  where  they  took  passage  on  the  Trent,  a 
British  mail  steamer  bound  for  Liverpool.  This  vessel 
was  overhauled  by  the  United  States  frigate  San  Ja- 
cinto, under  the  command  of  Captain  Wilkes,  and  the 
Confederate  commissioners  and  their  secretaries  were 
forcibly  removed  to  the  latter  vessel,  and  brought  to  the 
United  States.  The  excitement  in  England,  created  by 
this  illegal  act,  was  intense.  The  British  government 
demanded  the  instant  surrender  of  the  captured  com- 
missioners, and,  w ithout  waiting  for  the  reply  of  the 
United  States,  began  vigorous  preparations  for  war. 
Her  army  and  navy  were  speedily  put  on  a w ar  footing, 
and  regiments  were  dispatched  to  Canada  to  secure  the 
frontier.  But  the  excitement  subsided  as  quickly  as  it 
had  risen,  for  the  United  States  promptly  disavowed 
the  act  of  her  rash  captain,  and  gracefully  restored  the 
Confederate  commissioners  to  the  protection  of  the 
British  flag. 

The  Alabama  Claims.  But  the  United  States  had  a 
grievance  against  Great  Britain,  growing  out  of  the 
war,  which  the  latter  country  was  not  so  ready  to  dis- 
avow and  settle.  Several  vessels,  the  most  noted 
of  which  was  the  Alabama,  had  been  built  and 
equipped  in  an  English  dock-yard  on  the  Clyde,  for  the 
use  of  the  Confederate  States.  Though  notified  by  the 
American  minister  of  the  destination  of  the  vessels, 
the  English  government  took  no  measures  to  detain 
them,  and  they  sailed  away  to  prey  upon  Northern 
commerce.  The  United  States  could  not  afford,  during 
the  continuance  of  civil  strife,  to  press  claims  that 
might  lead  to  war,  and  so  these  claims  were  allowed 
to  remain  in  abeyance.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  they 


296 


VICTORIA. 


became  the  subject  of  diplomacy  between  the  two 
nations.  Finally,  in  1871,  a Joint  High  Commission, 
composed  of  five  members  on  each  side,  met  at  Wash- 
ington and  arranged  the  basis  of  a treaty.  By  this 
treaty  all  the  questions  at  issue  between  the  two 
countries  were  referred  to  a tribunal,  composed  of  five 
arbitrators,  to  be  selected,  one  each  by  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Brazil. 
This  tribunal  met  on  the  15th  of  June,  1872,  at  Geneva, 
Switzerland.  It  rejected  the  claims  of  the.  United 
States  for  indirect  damages,  but  awarded  as  direct 
damages,  on  account  of  the  depredations  of  the  Ala- 
bama and  other  English-built  privateers,  the  sum  of 
$15,500,000,  in  gold.  This  award  was  promptly  paid 
by  Great  Britain,  and  the  relations  of  the  two  countries 
became  once  more  harmonious. 

Queen  Victoria.  Victoria  was  but  eighteen  years  of 
age  when  she  assumed  the  sovereignty  of  the  vast  em- 
pire of  Great  Britain.  She  was  possessed  of  refined 
and  unpretending  manners,  a cultivated  mind,  and  a 
deeply  religious  spirit.  Almost  forty  years  have  elapsed 
since  the  memorable  morning  of  the  20th  of  June, 
1837,  when  as  an  acknowledged  queen  she  took  her 
seat,  for  the  first  time,  at  the  head  of  the  Council  table, 
and,  in  low  but  melodious  tones,  made  the  Declara- 
tion, of  which  the  following  is  the  opening  clause  : — 

" The  severe  and  afflicting  loss  which  the  nation  has 
sustained  by  the  death  of  his  majesty,  my  beloved 
uncle,  has  devolved  upon  me  the  duty  of  administering 
the  government  of  this  empire.  This  awful  responsi- 
bility is  imposed  upon  me  so  suddenly,  and  at  so  early 
a period  of  my  life,  that  I should  feel  myself  utterly 


VICTORIA. 


297 


oppressed  by  the  burden,  were  I not  sustained  by  the 
hope  that  Divine  Providence,  which  has  called  me  to 
this  work,  will  give  me  strength  for  the  performance 
of  it,  and  that  I shall  find  in  the  purity  of  my  inten- 
tions, and  in  my  zeal  for  the  public  welfare,  that  support 
and  those  resources  which  usually  belong  to  a more 
mature  age  and  jbo  long  experience.” 

The  rare  fidelity  with  which,  during  a period  already 
longer  than  that  of  most  English  reigns,  the  principles 
of  this  Declaration  have  been  carried  out,  demonstrate 
that  it  was  not  the  hollow  utterance  too  common  on  such 
occasions.  Few  English  sovereigns  have  been  actuated 
by  a more  profound  desire  to  promote  the  best  inter- 
ests of  the  English  people  than  the  reigning  queen. 
Moderately  liberal,  never  partizan,  and  always  con- 
scientious, she  has  followed,  amidst  the  strife  and 
excitement  of  party  politics,  the  strict  line  of  consti- 
tutional duty.  When,  in  addition  to  this,  we  recall  the 
virtues  of  her  private  life,  her  faithfulness  as  a wife, 
and  her  devotion  as  a mother,  we  can  understand  the 
love  as  well  as  the  loyalty  which  she  has  inspired,  so 
deeply  and  so  generally,  in  the  hearts  of  her  people. 

Prince  Albert.  In  1840,  Victoria  married  Prince  Al- 
bert of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.  In  1861,  the  Prince  died, 
deeply  lamented  by  the  English  people.  Although  a 
German  by  birth,  he  came  to  feel  all  the  deep  solicitude 
for  the  welfare  of  the  nation,  that  animated  the  queen 
herself.  Possessed  of  marked  ability,  superior  judg- 
ment, and  liberal  views,  he  was  an  unostentatious,  but 
an  invaluable,  counselor  to  the  queen  and  to  her 
ministry.  To  him  is  due  the  inception  of  that  series 
of  International  Exhibitions,  that  have  apparently  be- 


298 


VICTORIA. 


come  a permanent  institution  in  the  world,  whose  value 
in  promoting  harmony  among  the  nations,  in  spreading 
a knowledge  of  useful  inventions,  and  in  stimulating 
a friendly  emulation  in  the  development  of  material 
resources,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  arts,  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.  They  are  the  Crusades  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  against  universal  ignorance. 

The  England  of  To-day,  The  reign  of  no  English 
sovereign  has  been  so  prolific  in  measures  for  the  public 
weal  as  that  of  Victoria.  The  England  of  to-day  bears 
little  resemblance  to  the  England  of  even  forty  years  ago. 
The  removal  of  restrictions  upon  trade  has  led  to  a 
vast  increase  in  commerce.  Improved  agricultural 
implements,  and  a practical  knowledge  of  chemistry, 
have  made  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  less  burdensome 
and  more  remunerative.  Improved  machinery  has 
increased  immensely  the  products  of  manufactures. 
The  construction  of  numerous  railroads  for  the  rapid 
transit  of  goods  and  passengers,  the  introduction  of  the 
electric  telegraph  facilitating  the  transaction  of  busi- 
ness, and  the  multiplication  of  swift  ocean  steamships, 
have  placed  England  within  reach  of  the  markets  of 
the  world,  and  caused  an  immense  and  constantly 
increasing  development  of  her  resources. 

But  beneath  all  these  evidences  of  material  prosperity 
there  is  the  basis  of  a wise  legislation,  which,  recogniz- 
ing the  fact,  that  intelligence  and  virtue  on  the  part  of 
the  people,  form  the  only  true  foundation  of  national 
power  and  national  prosperity,  has  sought  in  every  way 
to  elevate  and  enlighten  the  people.  The  criminal  code 
has  been  shorn  of  its  barbarities,  and  the  death  penalty 
abolished  for  all  except  the  most  heinous  crimes.  The 


VICTORIA. 


299 


cruel  punishments  of  the  navy  have  yielded  to  a milder 
and  less  brutalizing  discipline.  The  horrors  of  prison 
life  have  been  mitigated,  and  the  poor  and  unfortunate 
of  all  kinds  have  been  provided  with  comfortable 
asylums.  Reformatory  institutions  have  been  estab- 
lished for  juvenile  delinquents  and  outcasts,  where, 
far  removed  from  circumstances  of  neglect  or  bru- 
tality, calculated  to  produce  only  paupers  and  crimi- 
nals, they  are  trained,  by  a management,  both  wise 
and  humane,  to  become  good  citizens.  Sanitary  pre- 
cautions have  left  few  lurking  places  in  town  or  city 
for  the  pestilence  that  has  so  often  wasted  the  popula- 
tion of  England.  Whatever  concerns  the  physical, 
moral,  and  spiritual  welfare  of  the  English  people,  has 
engrossed  English  statesmanship,  and  become  the  suIh 
ject  of  English  legislation. 


300 


THE  BllITISH  GOVERNMENT. 


The  British  Government. 

The  Executive  Department.  The  British  govern- 
ment consists  of  three  departments,  the  Executive, 
Legislative,  and  Judiciary.  The  Executive  power  is 
vested  in  a hereditary  sovereign,  who  rules  through  a 
Ministry  or  Cabinet,  composed  of  prominent  officials,  as 
follows  : — 

The  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  called  Prime  Minis- 
ter or  Premier  ; the  Lord  Chancellor  ; the  Lord  Privy 
Seal;  the  President  of  the  Council;  the  Home  Secre- 
tary ; the  Foreign  Secretary  ; the  Colonial  Secretary  ; 
the  Indian  Secretary  ; the  War  Secretary  ; the  Chancel- 
lor of  the  Exchequer  ; the  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  ; 
the  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  ; the  President  of 
the  Poor  Law  Board ; the  Postmaster  General ; the 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster  ; and  the  Chief 
Secretary  for  Ireland. 

The  Cabinet  Ministers  form  a standing  committee  of 
the  Privy  Council,  a body  of  prominent  men,  selected 
by  the  sovereign  as  advisers  in  the  administration  of 
the  government.  The  Cabinet  holds  frequent  sessions, 
but  the  Privy  Council  is  summoned  only  on  important 
occasions.  The  Cabinet  Ministers,  usually  called  "the 
government,”  are  held  responsible  for  all  the  acts  of  the 
executive  department,  it  being  an  established  principle 
in  the  British  government,  that  " The  king  can  do  no 
wrong.”  These  Ministers  remain  in  office  only  so  long 
as  they  are  sustained  by  a majority  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  Whenever  the  vote  of  the  House  is  cast 
r against  any  important  measure  proposed  by  the  minis- 
try, it  is  accepted  by  the  latter  as  expressing  " a want 


THE  BRITISH  GOVERNMENT. 


301 


of  confidence  in  the  government  ” on  the  part  of  the 
people.  Two  courses  are  now  open  to  the  ministry ; 
they  either  resign  at  once,  in  which  case  the  sovereign 
calls  upon  the  leader  of  the  opposite  party  to  form  a 
new  ministry ; or  they  can  " appeal  to  the  country,’’ 
in  which  case  the  sovereign  dissolves  the  Parliament, 
and  issues  writs  fora  new  election.  If  the  new  House 
of  Commons  is  in  sympathy  with  the  ministry,  the 
latter  remain  in  office;  if  not,  they  promptly  resign, 
and  a new  ministry  is  formed  of  the  opposite  party. 
As  the  result  of  the  election  is  readily  ascertained,  the 
ministerial  question  is  usually  settled  before  the  meet- 
ing of  the  new  Parliament. 

An  interesting  fact  may  be  mentioned  in  this  con- 
nection, illustrating  the  authority  attached  in  England 
to  simple  custom  or  usage.  Although  the  Cabinet  has 
existed  as  the  real  executive  power,  for  more  than  a 
century  and  a half,  it  is  an  institution  entirely  unknown 
to  the  law,  never  having  been  recognized  by  any  Act 
of  Parliament.  There  is  no  official  announcement  of 
the  names  of  its  members,  and  no  official  record  of  its 
meetings  is  kept. 

The  prerogatives  of  the  Crown  are  : — the  right  to 
make  peace  or  war;  to  prorogue,  dissolve,  or  summon 
Parliament ; to  give  or  withhold  assent  to  Acts  of  Par- 
liament ; to  send  and  receive  ambassadors  ; to  confer 
or  create  titles  of  nobility ; to  grant  pardons  ; to  coin 
money  ; to  appoint  judges  and  inferior  magistrates  ; to 
give  and  revoke  commissions  in  the  army  and  navy ; 
and,  as  head  of  the  established  church,  to  nominate  to 
vacancies  in  the  leading  church  offices. 


302 


THE  BRITISH  GOVERNMENT. 


The  Legislative  Department.  The  legislative  power 
is  vested  in  a Parliament  consisting  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  the  House  of  Commons. 

The  House  of  Lords.  The  House  of  Lords  is  com- 
posed of  Lords  spiritual  and  Lords  temporal.  The 
Lords  spiritual  are  thirty  in  number, — twenty-six  pre- 
lates of  the  Church  of  England,  and  four  prelates  (one 
Archbishop  and  three  Bishops)  of  the  Irish  church,  the 
latter  holding  office  one  year  and  then  yielding  their 
places  to  the  next  four.  The  number  of  Lords  tem- 
poral in  England  is  entirely  unsettled,  but  there  are 
sixteen  Scottish,  and  twenty-eight  Irish,  nobles,  who 
are  elected  by  the  nobility, — those  from  Ireland  for  life, 
and  those  from  Scotland  for  a year.  The  English 
Lords  are  hereditary. 

The  House  of  Commons.  The  House  of  Commons 
consists  of  representatives  of  counties,  cities,  boroughs, 
and  some  of  the  Universities ; England  and  Wales 
having  about  five  hundred,  Scotland  about  fifty,  and 
Ireland  about  one  hundred. 

Bills  may  be  proposed  in  either  House,  except  those 
appropriating  money,  which  can  originate  only  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  The  Lords  can  reject,  but  they 
cannot  alter,  money  bills.  Every  bill  must  be  read  and 
passed  by  a majority  vote,  three  times  in  each  House, 
and  receive  the  royal  signature,  before  it  can  become 
law.  Although  the  sovereign  has  the  right  to  withhold 
the  royal  signature,  this  right  has  not  been  exercised 
since  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne.  By  its  control  of  the 
public  fuuds,  and  by  its  ability,  through  a ministry 
necessarily  in  harmony  with  itself,  to  shape  the  entire 


THE  BRITISH  GOVERNMENT. 


303 


policy  of  the  government,  the  House  of  Commons  is 
the  chief'ruling  power. 

The  Judiciary  Department.  The  Judiciary  depart- 
ment consists,  in  England  and  Ireland,  of  the  Courts 
of  Chancery,  Queen’s  Bench,  Common  Pleas,  and  Ex- 
chequer; in  Scotland,  of  the  Court  of  Sessions  and  the 
High  Court  of  Justiciary.  In  the  rural  districts  Cir- 
cuit Courts  are  held  twice  a year  by  itinerant  justices. 
The  House  of  Lords  is  the  highest  law  court  in  the 
empire.  There  are  three  kinds  of  law  through  which 
justice  is  administered . in  England ; Common  law, 
Statute  law,  and  the  law  of  Equity.  Common  law  is 
based  on  custom,  or  precedents  established  by  former 
decisions  of  the  Courts ; Statute  law  consists  of  Acts 
of  Parliament ; and  the  law  of  Equity  is  administered 
by  the  Lord  Chancellor,  in  cases  not  covered  by  Statute 
law,  and  where  justice  cannot  be  secured  by  the  Com- 
mon law. 


TOPICAL  INDEX. 


Preface,  

3 

Kings  of  England,  .... 

5 

Names  of  Kings  and  Leading  Topics, 

6 

Genealogical  Table,  .... 

8 

The  British  Empire, 

10 

CHAPTER  I. 

The  Britons,  .... 

11 

Druidism,  .... 

12 

First  Roman  Invasion, 

13 

Second  Roman  Invasion, 

13 

Caractacus,  .... 

14 

Slaughter  of  the  Druids, 

14 

Boadicea,  .... 

14 

The  Roman  Conquest, 

15 

The  Saxon  Conquest, 

16 

King  Arthur,  .... 

17 

The  Heptarchy,  .... 

18 

Introduction  of  Christianity,  . 

18 

Anglo-Saxon  Religion, 

19 

Anglo-Saxon  Government, 

20 

CHAPTER  II. 

JEgrbert.  The  Danish  Invasions, 

. 

. 

21 

AS fred.  tlie  Great.  War  with  the  Danes, 

22 

Alfred’s  Government, 

. 

. 

23 

Alfred’s  Successors, 

. 

. 

24 

Massacre  of  Danes, 

. 

24 

The  Danish  Conquest, 

. 

. 

24 

Comparison  between  Saxon  and  Danish  Conquests, 

25 

CHAPTER  III. 

Canute  tlie  Great.  The  Reign  of  Canute, 

305 


27 


306 


TOPICAL  INDEX, 


Canute  and  the  Christian  Church, 

. 

. 

. 

28 

Ildward  tlie  Confessor.  Character  of  Edward, 

29 

William,  Duke  of  Normandy, 

. 

. 

. 

29 

Battle  of  Hastings,  A.D.  1066, 

• 

• 

• 

30 

CHAPTER  IV. 

William  tlie  Conqueror.  Rolf,  the  Dane, 

31 

Revolt  of  the  English,  .... 

31 

Confiscation  of  English  Estates, 

32 

The  Feudal  System  Established, 

33 

The  Doomsday  Book 

34 

The  Curfew  Bell,  . . . . 

34 

The  Norman  Language, 

34 

Character  of  William  the  Conqueror, 

34 

YYilliam  II.  Rebellion  of  the  Barons, 

37 

Character  of  William  II., 

37 

The  Crusades, 

38 

The  Benefits  of  the  Crusades, 

38 

The  System  of  Chivalry, 

39 

Henry  I.  First  Charter  of  Liberties, 

40 

Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy, 

41 

Character  and  Reign  of  Henry, 

42 

The  White  Ship, 

42 

Stephen.  Civil  War,  . 

43 

Compromise  between  Stephen  and  Henry, 

44 

The  Robber  Barons,  .... 

44 

The  Outlaws  of  the  Forest, 

CHAPTER  V. 

45 

Henry  II.  The  Condition  of  England, 

47 

The  Establishment  of  Order, 

48 

Contest  between  Church  and  State, 

48 

The  Council  of  Clarendon, 

49 

Thomas  a Becket  and  King  Henry, 

49 

The  Death  of  Thomas  'h  Becket, 

50 

The  Judiciary  System,  .... 

50 

Trial  by  Jury,  

51 

Conquest  of  Ireland,  .... 

52 

Henry’s  Rebellious  Sons, 

52 

TOPICAL  INDEX. 

307 

Richard  I.  Slaughter  of  Jews, 

53 

Richard  in  the  Holy  Land,  . . . 

54 

Richard  a Captive  in  the  Tyrol,  . , 

54 

War  with  France  and  Death  of  Richard, 

55 

Character  of  Richard,  .... 

55 

Joint.  Character  of  John, 

56 

Loss  of  Possessions  in  France, 

57 

John’s  Quarrel  with  the  Pope, 

57 

The  Papal  Interdict,  .... 

58 

John’s  Submission  to  the  Pope, 

58 

Magna  Charta,  A. D.  1215, 

59 

Patriotism  of  the  Bishops  of  England,  . 

61 

Henry  111.  The  Regency, 

. 

62 

Redress  the  Condition  of  a Vote  of  Supplies, 

62 

Henry’s  Attempt  to  Overthrow  the  Charter, 

63 

Rebellion  of  the  Barons, 

. 

63 

Simon  de  Montfort  and  the  House  of  Commons,  A.D.  1265, 

64 

Evesham,  

65 

Edward  I.  Conquest  of  Wales, 

65 

Arbitrary  Taxation  Forbidden, 

66 

Beginning  of  the  Wars  with  Scotland,  . 

67 

Battle  of  Dunbar,  .... 

67 

William  Wallace,  .... 

68 

Robert  Bruce,  . , 

69 

Character  of  Edward  I„ 

69 

Edw  ard  II.  Character  of  Edward  II., 

70 

Piers  Gaveston, 

70 

Bannockburn,  A.D.  1314, 

71 

Queen  Isabella  in  France, 

72 

Deposition  and  Death  of  Edward,  . 

72 

Edw  ard  III.  The  Regency,  . 

72 

Treaty  of  Northampton, 

74 

Fail  of  Isabella  and  Mortimer, 

74 

Halidon  Hill,  ... 

75 

The  “ Hundred  Years’  War”  with  France, 

• 

75 

Cressy,  A.D,  1346,  .... 

76 

Calais,  

76 

Neville’s  Cross, 

77 

Poictiers,  A D.  1356,  . . , . 

77 

308 


TOPICAL  INDEX, 


Loss  of  French  Possessions, 

• 

78 

Internal  Disorder, 

• 

78 

The  Good  Parliament, 

79 

John  WicklifFe,  .... 

• 

79 

The  English  Language,  . 

• 

80 

The  English  People, 

• 

80 

Change  in  the  Methods  of  Warfare, 

81 

The  Two  Houses  of  Parliament, 

81 

Death  of  Edward, 

82 

Iticlmrd  II.  The  Regency, 

82 

Causes  of  Wat  Tyler’s  Rebellion,  . 

83 

Emancipation,  . ... 

83 

The  Black  Death, 

84 

The  Statute  of  Laborers, 

84 

The  Breaking  out  of  the  Rebellion, 

84 

WicklifFe  and  the  First  Reformation, 

• 

86 

Otterburn  and  Chevy  Chase, 

87 

Chaucer,  

• 

87 

Tyranny  of  Richard, 

• 

88 

Deposition  of  Richard, 

88 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Henry  IV.  Henry’s  Title, 

m # 

90 

The  First  Martyr  at  the  Stake, 

. . 

91 

Revolt  in  Behalf  of  Richard  II., 

. . 

91 

Revolt  of  the  Welsh, 

, , 

92 

Revolt  of  the  Percies, 

• • 

92 

The  Poet-King  of  Scotland, 

, . 

93 

Henry’s  Troubles, 

• 

93 

Henry  V.  The  Wise  Beginning  of  Henry’s 

Reign, 

94 

Suppression  of  the  First  Reformation, 

. 

95 

Renewal  of  the  “ Hundred  Years’  War,' 

u 

• 

97 

Agincourt,  A.  D.  1415, 

. 

. 

97 

Siege  of  Rouen,  . ... 

. 

• 

98 

Conquest  of  France  and  Treaty  of  Troyes, 

. 

99 

Beginning  of  the  Navy, 

. 

• 

99 

Henry  VI.  The  Dauphin  of  France  Assumes  the  Crown,  100 

Joan  of  Arc, 

. 

• 

100 

Loss  of  all  France,  except  Calais, 

. 

. 

103 

TOPICAL  INDEX 


309 


English  Discontent, . 

Jack  Cade's  Rebellion, 

Events  Preceding  the  Wars  of  the  Roses, 

Wars  of  the  Roses, 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Edward  IV.  Towton,  A.D.  1461,  .... 

Tewkesbury,  A.D.  1471, 

Character  and  Government  of  Edward, 

Results  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses, 

The  Destruction  of  the  Ancient  Nobility 

The  Loss  of  Constitutional  Liberty,  .... 

The  Decline  of  Civilization, 

Edward  V.  Usurpation  of  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
Hfctmrd  III.  The  Elements  of  Opposition  to  Richard, 

The  Smothered  Princes, 

Bosworth  Field, 

Character  of  Richard, 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Henry  VII.  Union  of  York  and  Lancaster, 

Lambert  Simnel,  . 

Perkin  Warbeck,  . 

The  Statute  of  Allegiance, 

The  Discovery  of  America, 

The  Revival  of  Letters,  

The  Character  and  Policy  of  Henry,  .... 
Henry  VIII.  Character  of  Henry  VIII., 

Foreign  Affairs, 

Divorce  of  Catherine  of  Arragon,  .... 

Cardinal  Wolsey,  

The  Divorce  of  Catherine  of  Arragon  Accomplished,  . 
The  Oxford  Reformers,  . . . . 

Erasmus,  

Thomas  More,  

Opposition  to  the  Oxford  Reformers 

Martin  Luther  and  the  Reformation,  .... 

The  Reformation  in  England, 

Bishop  Fisher  and  Thomas  More  Executed,  . 


103 

104 

105 

10G 

108 

109 

110 

111 

111 

113 

115 

116 

118 

118 

119 

120 

124 

124 

125 

126 

126 

127 

128 

131 

131 

132 

133 

135 

135 

136 

137 

137 

138 

140 

141 


310 


TOPICAL  INDEX 


Henry  Supreme  in  Church  and  State, 

The  Suppression  of  the  Religious  Houses, 

141 

143 

The  Bloody  Statute, 

IT* 

144 

Henry’s  Wives,  .... 

144 

Henry’s  Death,  .... 

145 

Lthvard  VI.  The  Regency, 

146 

Edward  and  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 

146 

Peasant  Revolts,  .... 

147 

Progress  of  the  Reformation, 

147 

Edward’s  Will,  .... 

143 

Mary.  Lady  Jane  Grey, 

' 

149 

Catholicism  Restored  to  England, 

151 

The  Martyrs  at  the  Stake, 

151 

Mary’s  Marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain, 

152 

Loss  of  Calais,  A.D.  1558, 

152 

Extenuation  of  Mary’s  Cruelty, 

153 

JElizabetli.  Protestantism  Restored  to  England, 

154 

The  Puritans, 

155 

The  Dangers  that  Environed  Elizabeth, 

156 

Elizabeth’s  Policy,  .... 

157 

Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 

159 

The  Maritime  Growth  of  England, 

163 

Elizabeth’s  Defiance  of  Philip, 

165 

The  Invincible  Armada, 

166 

Great  Names,  .... 

169 

Death  of  Elizabeth, 

169 

Character  of  Elizabeth, 

170 

CHAPTER  IX. 


Barnes  I.  Union  of  Scotch  and  English  Crowns,  . 171 

Persecution  of  Non-Conformists,  , . . . . 171 

King  James’s  Version  of  the  Bible,  . • . . 172 

The  Gunpowder  Plot, 172 

The  Pilgrim  Fathers,  . 173 

James's  Assumption  in  Matters  of  Religion,  . . 174 

James’s  Assumption  in  Matters  of  Government,  . . 174 

Foreign  Affairs, 176 

The  Parliament  of  1621,  176 

Prince  Charles,  177 


TOPICAL  INDEX, 


311 


Sir  Walter  Raleigh, 

Character  of  James  I., 

Charles  I. 

Constitutional  Liberty  at  the  Accession  of  Charles  I., 
Renewal  of  the  Constitutional  Struggle, 

Petition  of  Right,  A.D.  1628, 

The  King  Can  Do  No  Wrong, 

The  Purpose  of  Charles  to  Rule  Alone,  .... 

Laud,  Strafford,  and  the  Two  Courts 

The  High  Commission  and  Puritan  Emigration, 

The  Star  Chamber  and  Illegal  Taxation, 

Ship  Money  and  John  Hampden, 

The  Attempt  to  Force  Episcopacy  upon  the  Scots, 

The  Short  Parliament 

The  Long  Parliament, 

The  Attempt  of  Charles  to  Arrest  the  Five  Members, 

Civil  War  Inevitable, 

Roundheads  and  Cavaliers, 

Presbyterianism  Made  the  National  Religion, 

Edgehill,  A.D.  1612, 

Naseby,  A.D.  1645, 

Struggle  between  Presbyterians  and  Independents, 
Struggle  between  Parliament  and  the  Army, 

The  Army  Becomes  Supreme,  . . . , 

The  High  Court  of  Justice 

The  Conmaomvealtli. 

The  Commonwealth  and  its  Perils,  . . . . 

Worcester,  A.D.  1651, 

Parliament  and  the  Army, 

The  Expulsion  of  the  Rump  Parliament. 

Cromwell  Made  Lord  Protector, 

Cromwell  Usurps  the  Government,  . 

Prosperity  under  Cromwell’s  Rule,  . 

Cromwell’s  Death,  

Cromwell’s  Character  and  Motives,  . . . . 

Richard  Cromwell,  

The  Restoration, 

The  Last  Muster  of  the  Puritan  Army,  . 

C harles  II. 

The  Circumstances  under  which  Charles  Became  King, 


177 

178 

179 

181 

183 

184 

184 

185 

186 

187 

187 

188 

189 

189 

190 

190 

191 

191 

192 

192 

192 

194 

194 

195 

196 

197 

198 

199 

200 

201 

202 

203 

203 

206 

206 

207 

207 


312 


TOriCAL  INDEX 


The  Social  Revolution, 

The  Convention  Parliament,  .... 

The  Restoration  of  the  Episcopal  Religion,  . 

Attempt  to  Force  Episcopacy  upon  the  Scots, 

Foreign  Affairs, 

The  Plague  in  London,  

The  Great  Fire  of  London 

Charles  a Pensioner  of  Louis  of  France, 

Declaration  of  Indulgence, 

The  Test  Act,  

The  Popish  Plot, k 

The  Rye  House  Plot, 

The  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  A.D.  1679, 

The  Merry  Monarch, 

James  IE.  The  Second  Stuart  Tyranny, 

Rebellion  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth, 

The  English  Reign  of  Terror,  .... 

Attempt  to  Restore  Catholicism  to  England, 

The  Seven  Bishops, 

William  of  Orange  Invited  to  Take  the  English  Crown, 
The  Flight  of  James  to  France,  .... 

The  Glorious  Revolution  Peacefully  Accomplished, 
William  and  Mary.  The  Grand  Alliance, 

Rebellion  in  Ireland, 

Battle  of  the  Boyne, 

Peace  of  Rj^swick,  ...... 

The  Bill  of  Rights,  A.D.  1689,  .... 

The  Constitution  of  England,  .... 

The  Second  Grand  Alliance,  .... 

Death  and  Character  of  William,  .... 

Anne.  The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 

Marlborough,  

Constitutional  Union  of  England  and  Scotland, 

Death  of  Good  Queen  Anne,  .... 

CHAPTER  X. 

Georgre  I.  The  Jacobites,  .... 

The  Pretender, 

The  South  Sea  Scheme,  


208 

210 

211 

211 

212 

213 

213 

214 

215 

215 

216 

217 

217 

218 

218 

219 

220 

222 

223 

224 

225 

226 

227 

228 

228 

229 

229 

230 

232 

233 

234 

235 

236 

237 

238 

239 

239 


TOPICAL  INDEX 


313 


The  Septennial  Act,  .... 

• 

. 

241 

CJeorg-c  II.  Robert  Walpole,  . 

241 

War  with  Spain 

242 

War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  . 

243 

The  Young  Pretender, 

244 

Culloden, 

244 

The  Last  of  the  Stuarts,  .... 

245 

The  French  and  Indian  War,  . 

245 

The  Five  Important  Points, 

24G 

The  Battle  of  Quebec,  .... 

247 

A Proud  Year  in  English  Warfare, 

247 

The  Straggle  for  Dominion  in  India, 

248 

Plassev,  

249 

George  III.  The  Peace  of  Paris,  . 

250 

Causes  of  the  American  Revolution, 

251 

The  Repressive  Policy  of  England,  ' . 

251 

Search  Warrants,  .... 

251 

The  Stamp  Act, 

251 

Boston  Port  Bill,  .... 

252 

Battle  of  Lexington,  April  19th,  1775,  . 

252 

The  Declaration  of  Independence, 

254 

Surrender  of  Burgoyne  and  Alliance  with 

France, 

255 

William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham, 

256 

Yorktown,  A.  D.  1781,  .... 

257 

Peace  of  Paris, 

257 

Causes  of  the  French  Revolution, 

257 

The  Despotic  Rule  of  Louis  XIY. 

257 

The  Corrupt  Rule  of  Louis  XV., 

258 

The  Inefficient  Rule  of  Louis  XVI., 

258 

The  French  Sceptics,  .... 

258 

The  Influence  of  the  American  Revolution, 

259 

The  States-General, 

259 

The  Revolution  Sweeps  away  Church  and  State,  . 

260 

The  Reign  of  Terror,  .... 

260 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  .... 

261 

Admiral  Nelson, 

262 

The  Struggle  on  the  Spanish  Peninsula, 

262 

The  Invasion  of  Russia, 

263 

The  Battle  of  the  Nations, 

. 

264 

314 


TOPICAL  INDEX. 


Napoleon  at  Elba,  264 

Waterloo,  A.D.  1815, 264 

Napoleon  at  St.  Helena,  266 

Causes  of  England's  Second  War  with  the  United  States,  267 
Right  of  Search  and  Impressment  of  Seamen,  . . 267 

“Decrees 11  of  Napoleon  and  “Orders"  of  English  Council,  268 


Declaration  of  War  by  the  United  States, 

Battle  of  New  Orleans, 

Peace  of  Ghent,  . . . . , 

The  Regency,  , 

CJeorgre  IV.  England  after  the  Napoleonic  Wars, 

The  Corn  Law, 

Agitation  on  the  Subject  of  Reform,  .... 
The  Repeal  of  the  Corporation  and  Test  Acts, 

The  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill, 

Daniel  O’Connell,  

Navarino,  A.D  1827, 

Character  of  George  IV.,  ...... 

William  IV. 

State  of  Feeling  in  England  at  the  Accession  of  William, 
The  Reform  Bill  of  1832, 

Results  of  Reform  Legislation, 

Abolition  of  Slavery  in  the  Colonies, 

Character  of  William  IV., 

Victoria.  Reform  Legislation  in  the 
Repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws, 

The  Chartists, 

The  Disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church, 

The  Irish  Land  Bill, 

The  Education  Bill, 

The  Foreign  Policy,  . ... 

War  with  Egypt, 

Wars  with  China, 

The  Balance  of  Power,  . 

The  Crimean  War,  ... 

The  Sepoy  Rebellion, 

Havelock  and  the  Relief  of  Lucknow, 

Campbell  and  the  Second  Relief  of  Lucknow, 

The  Affair  of  the  Trent,  .... 


Reign  of  Victoria, 


268 

268 

269 

269 

269 

271 

271 

272 

273 

273 

274 

275 

276 

277 

278 

279 

279 

280 
281 
282 

285 

286 
286 
287 

287 

288 
288 

290 

291 

292 

293 

294 


TOPICAL  INDEX*  315 

The  Alabama  Claims, 295 

Queen  Victoria, 296 

Prince  Albert, 297 

The  England  of  To-day,  298 

The  British  Government. 

The  Executive  Department, 300 

The  Legislative  Department,  . 302 

The  House  of  Lords, 302 

The  House  of  Commons, 302 

The  Judiciary  Department, 803 


* 


INDEX 


Alabama  Claims 295 

Abysinia * 2S7 

Acre  (a  leer) 288 

Act  of  Settlement 230 

Act  of  Supremacy 140, 141 

Act  of  Uniformity 154,  211 

Af-ghan-is-tan' 287 

AgMn-court  (d-zhan-koor1) , Battle  of  97 

A-grido-la 15 

Aix-1  i*Chapelle  ( akes-lah  shapel ), 

Treaty  of 243 

Albert,  Prince 297 

Alice  Lisle  {lile)  220 

America,  Discovery  of 120 

American  Settlements 173, 186 

An  gles  (an'gls) 16 

An'gle-sey  12 

Anne  Boleyn  (booVeri) ....  133, 135, 145 

AnneofCleves 145 

Anti-Corn  Law  League 281 

An'selm 36 

Ar-a-bel'la  Stuart 178 

Areh-an'gel...... 164 

Ar  cot 249 

Arthur,  King 17 

Arthur,  Prince 57 

As'ca-lon 54 

Austrian  Succession,  War  of 243 

Balance  of  Power...-. 288 

Bal-ak-la'va 291 

Ba;li-ol,  Edward 75 

Baliol,John. 67 

Ban'nock-burn,  Battle  of 71 

Bar'net,  Battle  of ..... 110 

Becket,  Thomas  a 49,50 

Bede  19 

Belgium 277 

Benevolence Ill,  129, 183 

Bengal  ( ben-gawV ) 292 

Bill  of  Rights 229 

Black  Death 84 

Black  Hole  of  Calcutta 249 

Biack  Prince 76,  77, 89 

Blake,  Admiral 199 

Blenheim  (blen'hime),  Battle  of...  234 

Bloody  Assize 220 

Bloody  Statute 144 

Blucher  ( bioo'kerj , General 265 

Boadice  a,  Queen 14 

Bo’na-parte,  Napoleon  ...  261,  264,  266 

Bona-parte,  Louis  Napoleon 281 

Boston  187 

Boston  Port  Bill 252 


Bos' worth,  Battle  of 119 

Both'well,  Earl  of 161 

Boyne,  Battle  of  the 228 

Bretigny  ( Breteenye ) 78 

Bright,  John 280 

British  Constitution 230 

British  Empire 10 

British  Government 300 

Brougham  ( broo'am ),  Lord 280 

Bruce,  Robert 67,  69 

Brussels 277 

BuckMng-ham,  Duke  of 117 

Runfyan,  John 215 

Bur-goync',  General 255 

Bur  gundy,  Duchess  of 125 

By'ron,  Lord 275 

Ca-bal',  The 214 

Cabinet 300 

Cab'ots 127 

Cade,  Jack 104 

Caesar,  Julius 13 

Calais  (kalHs) 76, 152 

Cal-cut'ta — 249 

Campbell,  Sir  Col'in 293 

Campeg'gio 133 

Ca-racha-cus 14 

Car-nat'ic... 249 

Car'o-line  of  Brunswick 275 

Cath'e-rine  of  Ar'ra-gon 130, 135 

Catherine  of  Bra-gan'za . . 218 

Catherine  Ho  ward 145 

Catherine  Parr 145 

Catholic  Associations 273 

Catholic  Emancipation  Bill 273 

Cavaliers 191 

Cavalier  Parliament 211 

Cawnpore' 292 

Caxton,  William 127 

Chancery,  Court  of. 66,  303 

Charles  Edward,  the  Pretender..  244 

Chartists 282,283 

Chaucer  ( chaw'ser ) 87 

Chev'y  Chase 87 

China,  War  with-  282 

Chivalry 39,  82 

Church  of  England 140,154 

Churchill,  Lord 224,  234,  235 

Clive,  Robert 249 

Cob'den,  Richard 280 

Co  lundbus. 126 

Common  Prayer,  Book  of. ...... . 148 

Commonwealth 196 

Com-purga'iion 50 


318 


INDEX 


Constitution,  British 230 

Constitutions  of  Clarendon 49 

Convention,  Parliament ......  . 210 

Corn-Laws 2J5l,28l 

Corn- waMis,  Lord 257 

Corporation  Act 211,272 

Court  ol  High  Commission...  185, 

18G, 190 

Court  of  Star  Chamber....  185,  187,  190 

Covenanters 188,212 

Cranmer,  Thomas . . . 135,  145,  147,  151 

Cressy  (, kres'se ),  Battle  of 76 

Cri-me'a > 290 

Cromwell,  Thomas 144,  115 

Cromwell,  Oliver...., 192,  200 

Cromwell,  Richard 2!  G 

Crusades 38 

Cul-lo'den,  Battle  of -244 

Cumberland,  Duke  ol ..  ..  2S0 

Cur'lew  Bell 34,  42 

Dane'geld 24 

DarnMey,  Lord 160 

“Decrees”  of  Napoleon 268 

Declaration  of  Indulgence 223 

De-i'ra 19,32 


De  Ruyter  ( ri'ter ) 199 

Detftirig-en,  Battle  of. 243 

Dooms'dav  Book 34 

Drake,  Sir  Francis 165, 166 

Dru'idism 12 

Dun'bar,  Battles  of 67, 197 

Dun 'kirk 203,  214 

Du  Quesne  ( kane),  Fort 246 

East  India  Company 248,  294 

Edgehill,  Battle  of 192 

Education  Bill 286 

Egypt * 287 

El'ba,  Island  of. 254 

Eleanor,  [sister  of  Arthur] .......  57 

Elgi'-va 24 

El'i-ot,  Sir  John  ..  182 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  Henry  VII...  119 

Empson  and  Dudley 131 

En-nis-kil'len 228 

E-ras'mus 128,  136 

Eugene,  Priuce 234 

Eves  ham, .Battle  of  65 

Falkirk 68 

Feudal  System 33 

Field  ol  Cloth  of  Gold 132 

Fire  ol  London 213 

Fisher,  Bishop 141 

Flod’den  Field,  Battle  ol 132 

Foth’er-in-gay  Castle  163 

French  Revolution 257 

Fro'bish-er,  Martin 164,167 

Gas  coigne  (-Icoin).  Chief  Justice.  94 

Gav  es-ton  Piers 70 

George,  Prince  of  Denmark 237 

Ghent,  Treaty  of..  269 

Gibraltar  (Jib-rawVter) . . . 257 

Glendower,  Owen 92 

Godwin 99 

Grand  Alliance ....  227 

Grand  Alliance,  Second 232 

Greece 274 

Grey,  Loid 116 


Grey,  Lady  Jane 132, 148, 149 

Grouchy  (grookli*),  Marshal 265 

Guiana  (ghc-ah  null) 171 

Guise  ( gweez ) , Duke  ol . . . 153 

Gunpowder  Plot 172 

Guth'rum  22 

Guy  Fawkes 172 

Ha'be-as  Cor'pus  Act 217 

Ilalidon  Hill,  Battle  of 78 

Hampden,  John 187, 192 

Hanover 2^0 

Har'lleur  (har'Jlur) 97 

Hastings,  Battle  of 39 

Hastings,  Lord 116 

Hastings,  Warren 292 

Hav'e-lock,  General 292 

Hawke,  Admiral 248 

Haw'kins,  Admiral 164,167 

Ilen'gist  and  Horsa — 16 

Henrietta  Maria 177,  182 

Heptarchy •> 18 

High  Court  of  Justice 195 

Hong  Kong 288 

House  of  Commons 64,  81,  302 

House  of  Lords 81, 196, 302 

Howard,  Lord 167 

Huguenots  ( hu’ghe-nots ) 182 

Hundred  Years’  War 97 

Independents 192 

India 243 

Impressment  of  Seamen 267 

Ink'er-man,  Battle  of. 291 

Interdict 57,  58 

Invincible  Armada 166 

Irish  Church.... 285 

Irish  Land  Bill 283 

Isabella,  Queen.. 72,  74,  7G 

Jac'o-bites 238 

Jamestown 173 

Jane  Seymour 145 

Jeffries, “Judge 220,  221 

Jews 53,  69,  202,  285 

Joan  of  Arc 100 

John  of  Gaunt 124 

Joint  High  Commission 296 

Judiciary  System 50 

Judiciary  Department 303 

Judgment  of  God 51 

King’s  Evil......... 29 

Kirke’s  Lambs 220 

La  Hogue  {hog),  Battle  of 229 

Langside,  Battle  of 162 

Lang'ton,  Stephen 57,61 

Lat'i-mer,  Bishop 151 

Laud,  Archbishop....... 185,  190 

Leicester  (les'ter) , Earl  of 165 

Leipsic  (Jipe’sik),  Battle  of 264 

Lew'es  (In’ -is),  Battle  of 64 

Lexington,  Battle  of 252 

Limoges,  ( lee-mozh ') 55 

Llew-el'lyn 65 

Lochlev'en  Castle 162 

Lollards 95 

Londonderry 228 

Long  Parliament 189,266 

Louis  XIV.  of  France 257 

Louis  XV.  of  France  258 


INDEX 


319 


Louis  XVI.  of  France 258 

Louis  XVIII.  of  France 204 

Louis  Philippe  ( loo'efe-leep ') 276 

Louisbnrg 243 

Luck'-now 292,2113 

Luther,  Martin 138 

Magna  Charta 5!) 

Mal'a-koff 291 

Malplaquet  (mal  plah-ka1), Battle  of  234 

Mar,  Earl  ot 239 

Margaret  of  Anjou  ( on-zhoo ) 103 

Maria  Theresa  ( te-rt'zah ) 243 

Marl'bor-ough,  Duke  of..  224,  234,  235 

Marlborough,  Duchess  of 235 

Marston  Moor,  Battle  of.. 192 

Mary,  Queen  of  Scots 146, 159 

Mas'harn,  Mrs 237 

Matilda,  [wife  of  Conqueror] 86 

Matilda,  [wife  of  Henry  I.] 41 

Matilda,  [wife  of  Geoffrey  Plan- 

tagenet] 42 

Mee'rut 292 

Milton 218 

Min'den,  Battle  of 248 

Monk,  General 206 

Monmouth,  Duke  of 219 

Montcalm  (mdnt’kdm) , Marquis  of  247 

Montfort,  Simon  de 64 

More,  Sir  Thomas 137,141 

Mortimer,  Roger. ...  72 

Mortimer’s  Cross,  Battle  of 107 

Nantes  ( nants ),  Edict  of ...  227 

Napoleon..  261,261,263 

Nase  by,  Battle  of ...  192 

National  Convention 261 

Navigation  Laws 19S,  2r>3 

Navarino  (nah-vah-refno),  Battle  of  274 

Navy,  British 99 

Nelson,  Lord 262 

Nana  Sahib  ( sah-eeb ) 293 

Neville's  Cross,  Battle  of. 77 

New  Forest 35 

New  Orleans,  Battle  of. 238 

Nightingale,  Florence 291 

Oates,  Titus 216 

O’Connell,  Daniel 273 

Oldcastle,  Sir  John  95 

Orangemen 228 

“Orders  of  English  Council”.  ...  208 

Ot'ter-burn 87 

Ou'de-nar-de  (- deh ),  Battle  of 234 

Pakenham  (pak'n-am) , General...  268 

Paris,  Treaty  of 250, 257 

Parliament 8L 

Parliamentary  Reform 271,  277 

Peel,  Sir  Robert 283 

Pembroke,  Earl  of. 62 

Peninsular  War 262 

Perkin  Warbeek 121 

Peter  the  Hermit 38 

Petition  of  Right 183 

Philip  II.  of  Spain  153,152,157 

Phil  ip  pa.  Queen 77 

Pilgrim  Fathers 173 

Pilgrim’s  Progress,  Bunyan’s..  ..  215 
Pitt,  William,  Earl  of  Chatham...  256 
Pitt,  William,  the  Younger........  209 


Plague,  the  Great 213 

Plantagenet,  Geoffrey 42 

Plantagenefc,  Origin  of  Name 46 

Plas'sey,  Battle  of. 249 

Poictiers  (poi-teerz1) , Battle  of 77 

Pon-di-cher'ry  (- slier -) 249 

Popish  Plot 216 

Presbyterians 192 

Preston  Pans,  Battle  of. 214 

Prince  Albert. 297 

Prince  of  Wales,  Title  of 06 

Printing 127 

Privy  Council 300 

Protestants 143 

Puritans..., 155 

Purveyance 175 

Pym,  John 190 

Quakers 202,212,215 

Que-bec,  Battle  of. 2 17 

Qui  heron  Bav 248 

Raleigh  ( raiv'ie ),  Sir  Walter 1 77 

Ram'ii-lies,  Battle  ot 234 

Reformation,  First 79.  83,91,  95 

Reformation,  Great 138,  140, 147 

Regicides  ..  - 210 

Reign  of  Terror 260 

Restoration £06 

Revolution  cfl088 226 

lie  volution,  American 251 

Revolution,  French 257 

Rheims  ( reemz ) 102 

Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester  ....  116 

Richelieu  (resh'eh-loo) 182 

Ridley,  Bishop 151 

Right  of  Search 2;>7 

Rivers,  Lord 116 

Rizzio  ( rceVse-o ) 11 

Robert,  Duke  ot  Normandy 41 

Robert,  Earl  of  Essex 139 

Robin  Hood 45 

Rochelle  ( ro-sheV ) 182  » 

Rouen  ( roo'ang ) 98 

Roundheads- .. 191 

Rump  Parliament 196,199 

Russell,  Lord 217 

Rye-House  Plot 217 

Ryshvick,  Treaty  of. 229 

St.  Alban  (awl1  ban) 18 

St.  Alban’s,  Battle  of 107 

St.  Au  gus-tine*  (-teen) 19 

St.  Brice,  Massacre  of 2t 

St.  He-le'na 2(  6 

Sa  Fa-din 54 

Sal'ic  Law 73 


Sar-a-to'ga ........  255 

Scone <»7 

Scots  .and  Piets * 15 

Search  Warrants 251 

Se-bas-to'-pol 2 ‘9 

Sedgemoor,  Battle  of 219 

Sepoy  Rebellion  29 L 

Serfdom . 20,  83  , 85 

Septennial  Act 241 

Se-ve'rus 16 

Shakspeare 109 

Ship  Money ...  187 

Short  Parliament 189 


320 


INDEX 


Sidonia,  Medina 106 

Simnel  Lambert >.  124 

Sidney  Algernon 217 

Slavery,  Abolition  of. 279 

Somerset,  Duke  of 105 

South  Sea  Scheme 239 

Spensers 72 

Spurs,  Battle  of 131 

Stafford.  Lord 210 

Stamp  Act 251 

Star  Chamber 129,  185,  187, 190 

States-General. 259 

Strafford,  Lord 185 

Strongbow 52 

Stuart,  Charles  Edward 244 

Stuart,  James  Francis 232, 239 

$ue-to  ni-us  (swe-) 14 

Suffolk,  Duke  of. 103 

Suppression  of  Religious  Houses  143 

Supremacy 140, 141 

Supremacy,  Oath  of * 151 

Su-rajah  Dowlah 249 

Sydney,  Sir  Philip 106 

Syria  ...  287 

Tal-a-ve  ra,  Battle  of. 262 

Test  Act 215,  272 

Tewkes  bury,  Battle  of. ...  109 

Toleration  Act «.  ....  230 

Torbay 225 

Tow'ton,  Battle  of 108 

Traf-al  gar  , Battle  of 262 

Trent. 294 


Trial  by  Jury hr 

Triple  Alliance 214 

Troyes  (trwah),  Treaty  of 99 

Tudor,  Owen  99,12/ 

Tyr-con'nel 222,  22r 

Tyrrel,  Walter 38 

Union  of  England  and  Ireland — 273 
Union  of  Ping,  and  Scotland..  171,236 

U'trecht,  Treaty  of 234 

Van  Tromp,  Admiral 193 

Victoria,  Queen....  2 >0 

Viliers  ( viOyerz ),  George  176, 181, 184 

Virginia 173 

Wager  of  Battle 51 

Wakefield,  Battle  of 1 7 

Wallace,  William 68 

Walpole,  Sir  Robert... t 241 

Wars  of  the  Roses....  90, 105,  106,  111 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession...  234 
Warwick  ( war'rilc ),  Earl  of...  105, 113 

Washington,  George 254 

Wat  Tyler 83 

Waterloo,  Battle  of 264 

Wellington,  Duke  of i63 

Wick'liffe,  John 79,  86,  96 

Wilberforce,  William  280 

William,  Prince  [son  of  Henry  I.]  42 

Wit-an-ag'e-mot 20 

Wolfe,  General 247 

Wolsey,  (wool'-ze)  Cardinal IS 

Worcester,  (woos'-ter)  Battle  of..  19V 
Yorktovm. 257 


CARDINAL  DATES  OF  ENGLISH  HISTORY. 


5 oB.C.  Britain  invaded  by  the  Romans  under  Julius  Caesar 
43  a.d.  Conquest  of  Britain  begun  by  Emperor  Claudius. 

73  Conquest  completed  by  the  Roman  general  Agricola. 

130  Britain  evacuated  by  the  Romans. 

4:49  Landing  of  the  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes. 

607  Saxon  conquest  completed  at  the  battle  of  Chester. 

827  English  Monarchy  founded  by  Egbert . 

871  Alfred  the  Great. 

loos  Massacre  of  Danes  by  Ethelred  the  Unready. 

1013  England  conquered  by  S*veyn.  king  of  Denmark. 

1017  Canute  the  Great.  Establishment  of  Danish  Rule. 
104:1  Edward  the  Confessor.  Saxon  Line  restored. 

1066  Battle  of  Hastings. 

William  I.  Beginning  of  Norman  Line. 

1087  William  II, 

1100  Henry  I.  Union  of  Saxon  and  Norman  Families. 

1101  First  Charter  of  Liberties. 

ii33  Stephen.  Usurpation  of  Stephen. 

1131  Henry  II.  Beginning  of  the  Plantagenet  Family. 
ii6i  Constitutions  of  Clarendon, 
lira  Conquest  of  Ireland, 
uso  Richard  I. 

H99  John. 

1215  Magna  Charta . 

1^16  Henry  III. 

1381  Battle  of  Lewes. 

1265  First  House  of  Commons. 

Battle  of  Evesham. 

1373  Edward  I. 

1383  Conquest  of  Wales. 

1300  Banishment  of  Jews. 

1296  Arbitrary  taxation  forbidden . 

1397  Battle  of  Dunbar. 

1307  Edward  II. 


322 


CARDINAL  DATES  OF  ENGLISH  HISTORY 


1314  Battle  of  Bannockburn. 

1337  Edward  III. 

1333  Battle  of  Ilalidon  Hill. 

1340  Battles  of  Cressy  and  Neville’s  Cross. 

1347  Capture  of  Calais. 

1356  Battle  of  Poic tiers. 

1360  Peace  of  Bretigny. 

1377  Richard  II. 

i3si  ThePeasants’  Revolt  or  Wat  Tyler's  Rebellion. 

1399  Henry  IV.  Beginning  of  the  House  of  Lancaster. 

1401  First^martyr  at  the  stake. 

1403  Battle  of  Shrewsbury. 
m3  Henry  V. 

1415  Battle  of  Agincourt. 

1430  Treaty  of  Troyes. 

H33  Henry  VI. 

1439  Siege  of  Orleans. 

1451  Loss  of  all  France  but  Calais. 

14:55  Beginning  of  Wars  of  the  Roses 
First  Battle  of  St.  Albans. 

1460  Battle  of  Wakefield 

1461  Second  Battle  of  St.  Albans. 

Edward  IV.  Beginning  of  the  House  of  York. 

Battle  of  Towton. 

14:71  Battles  of  Barnet  and  Tewkesbury. 

1474  Introduction  of  the  Printing  Press. 

1483  Edward  V.  Usurpation  of  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester, 

Richard  III. 

1485  Battle  of  Bosworth  and  end  of  Wars  of  the  Roses. 

Henry  VII.  Beginning  of  the  Tudor  Family. 

1497  Discovery  of  the  Continent  of  North  America. 

1509  Henry  VIII. 

1513  Battle  of  Flodden  Field. 

1317  Beginning  of  the  Great  Reformation  in  Germany. 

1531  j Beginning  of  the  Great  Reformation  in  England. 

1534  The  king  made  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church  of  England. 
1547  Edward  VI.  Battle  of  Pinkie. 

1553  Mary.  The  Catholic  religion  restored. 

1558  Loss  of  Calais. 

Elizabeth.  The  Protestant  religion  restored. 


CARDINAL  DATES  OF  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  323 


15S7  Death  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 

1588  Destruction  of  the  Invincible  Armada. 

1603  James  I.  Beginning  of  the  Stuart  Family. 

1605  The  Gunpowder  Plot. 

1607  Settlement  of  Jamestown . 

1611  Translation  of  the  Bible. 

1620  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims . 

1635  Charles  I. 

1628  The  Petition  of  Right . 

1630  Settlement  of  Boston. 

1637  Levy  of  Ship  Money.  ^ 

i6io  Meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament. 

1613  Beginning  of  the  Civil  War. 

Battle  of  Edgehill. 

1615  Battle  of  Naseby. 

1619  High  Court  of  Justice,  and  Execution  of  Charles  I. 

1649  Monarchy  abolished — Commonwealth  founded. 

1650  Battle  of  Dunbar. 

1651  Battle  of  Worcester. 

1653  Cromwell  made  Lord  Protector. 

1654  Cromwell  usurps  the  Government. 

1660  Charles  II.  The  Restoration  of  the  Monarchy . 

1661  The  Episcopal  Religion  restored. 

1665  The  London  Plague. 

1666  The  London  Fire. 

1678  The  Popish  Plot. 

1679  The  Habeas  Corpus  Act. 

1683  The  Rye  House  Plot. 

1685  James  II.  Battle  of  Sedgemoor. 

1688  The  Glorious  Revolution. 

16S9  William  and  Mary.  Accession  of  William  and  Mary. 

1689  The  Bill  of  Rights. 

1690  Battle  of  the  Boyne. 

1697  Peace  of  RysWiek. 

1701  Act  of  Settlement . 

1703  Anne.  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 

1707  Constitutional  Union  of  England  and  Scotland. 

1713  Peace  of  Utrecht. 


324 


CARDINAL  DATES  OF  ENGLISH  HISTORY, 


1714  George  I . 

1715  Landing  of  the  cider  Pretender. 
i7io  Septennial  Act. 

1727  C30rg3  II. 

1741  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. 

1745  Landing  of  the  younger  Pretender. 

174G  Battle  of  Culloden. 

1748  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1754  The  French  and  Indian,  or  Seven  Years’,  War. 

1759  Battle  of  Quebec. 

1760  George  III. 

1763  Peace  of  Paris. 

1765  Stamp  Act. 

1774  Boston  Port  Bill. 

1775  Battle  of  Lexington. 

1776  Declaration  of  Independence. 

1777  Surrender  of  Burgoyne  at  Saratoga. 

1781  Surrender  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown. 

1783  Independence  of  the  United  States  acknowledged . 
1789  The  French  Revolution. 

isoi  Constitutional  Union  of  England  and  Ireland. 

1805  Battle  of  Trafalgar. 

1813  Second  war  with  the  United  States. 

1814  Peace  of  Ghent. 

1815  Battle  of  Waterloo  and  fall  of  Napoleon. 

1830  George  IV. 

1837  Battle  of  Navarino. 

1839  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill. 

1830  William  IV. 

1832  The  Reform  Bill. 

1833  Abolition  of  Slavery  in  the  Colonies. 

1837  Victoria. 

1846  Repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws. 

1854  The  Crimean  War. 

1857  The  Sepoy  Rebellion. 

1858  The  government  of  India  assumed  by  the  Crown. 
1861  Death  of  Prince  Albert. 

i860  Disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church. 

1870  The  Education  Bill . 


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